Australian Antarctic Territory

Australian Antarctic Territory
External territory
Flag of Australian Antarctic Territory
Flag
Map of Antarctica indicating Australian territorial claim (red area)
Map of Antarctica indicating Australian territorial claim (red area)
Sovereign state Australia
Claim transferred to Australia1933
Main base
and administrative centre
Davis Station
68°34′36″S 77°58′03″E / 68.576667°S 77.9675°E / -68.576667; 77.9675
Official languagesEnglish
GovernmentDependency under a constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
Charles III
Sam Mostyn
• Minister responsible
Murray Watt
Area
• Total
5,896,500 km2 (2,276,700 sq mi)
Highest elevation
3,490 m (11,450 ft)
Population
• Estimate
less than 1,000
CurrencyAustralian dollar (AU$) (AUD)
Calling code+672 1x
Internet TLD

The Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) is a region of East Antarctica claimed by Australia as an external territory. It is the largest sector of Antarctica by area claimed by any country and was transferred to Australia by the United Kingdom in 1933. Australia is an original signatory of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, under which all territorial claims are held in abeyance. Only four other countries accept Australia's claim to sovereignty: New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.

The Australian Antarctic Territory is administered by the Australian Antarctic Division, an agency of the federal Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Australia has three permanent research stations in the territory: Mawson Station, Davis Station, and Casey Station. The territory has no permanent population apart from the staff employed through the Australian Antarctic Program, which typically consists of around 500 people in summer and as few as 80 people in winter.

History

Australia served as a stopping point for voyages towards the Antarctic region during the early 19th century, and many Australian sealers and whalers ventured towards the sub-Antarctic islands in search of animals to hunt.[1] Australians began participating in expeditions to the Antarctic continent during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.[2] The Southern Cross expedition of 1898 included the Tasmanian scientist Louis Bernacchi, who also joined the Discovery expedition of 1901. The Australian government contributed funds to the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911, led by the Australian geologist Douglas Mawson.[2]

The status of the British Empire's claims over Antarctica was discussed at the 1926 Imperial Conference, which recommended that Britain take action to strengthen its sovereignty over its territorial claims. The following year, Mawson publicly criticised the Australian government for its failure to assert control over the portions of the Antarctic closest to Australia. In February 1929, Australian Prime Minister Stanley Bruce announced in parliament that he considered the Australian sphere of influence in Antarctica to extend from the Ross Sea to Enderby Land.[3] Mawson returned to Antarctica as leader of the British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) and proclaimed British sovereignty over the land between the 47th and 73rd meridians east on 13 January 1930.[4] A further proclamation was made on 18 February 1931 over the area between the 60th and 138th meridians east.[5]

In 1933, the British government issued an order-in-council placing Britain's Antarctic territory—described as consisting of the lands between the 45th and 160th meridians east, excluding France's Adélie Land—under Australia's control. Later than year, Australia passed the Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Act 1933 to take possession of the territory. The order-in-council came into effect on 24 August 1936.[6] The establishment of the territory was protested by Norway, but this dispute was resolved in 1939 after the nations reached a compromise regarding licensing requirements for Norwegian whalers.[7] Australia established its first permanent base on Antarctica, Mawson Station, in 1954. This was followed by Davis Station in 1957, and two years later Australia took over the US-built Wilkes Station.[8] Wilkes Station was replaced by a site named Repstat in 1969, which was subsequently replaced by Casey Station in 1988.[8]

Australia passed the Australian Antarctic Territory Act in 1954, which placed the territory under the laws of the Australian Capital Territory and gave the federal government the power to make ordinances for its administration.[9] The International Geophysical Year of 1957–1958 saw a substantial increase in international scientific collaboration and the establishment of many research stations by other nations in Australia's territorial claim.[10] Australia was among the signatories of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, which came into effect on 23 June 1961.[11]

Geography and climate

Map of districts of Australian Antarctic Territory
  Enderby Land
  Kemp Land
  Mac. Robertson Land
  Princess Elizabeth Land
  Kaiser Wilhelm II Land
  Queen Mary Land
  Wilkes Land
  George V Land
  Oates Land

The Australian Antarctic territory occupies the area south of the 60th parallel south between the 160th meridian east and 45th meridian east, excluding France's Terre Adélie, which occupies the area between the 136th and 142nd meridian east.[12] It has a total area of about 5,900,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi), or 42% of Antarctica's land area.[13] The two tallest mountains in the Australian Antarctic Territory are Mount McClintock with a height of 3,490 m (11,450 ft) and Mount Menzies with a height of 3,355 m (11,007 ft).[12]

The territory has a cold and windy climate, with temperatures that range between −40 °C (−40 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F) near the coast and between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −30 °C (−22 °F) in the areas furthest inland.[14] Wind speeds in the Australian Antarctic Territory can reach up to 320 kilometres per hour.[12]

Subdivisions

Subdivisions of the Australian Antarctic Territory
Name Western border Eastern border Ref
Enderby Land 045° E 055° E [15]
Kemp Land 055° E 060° E [16]
Mac.Robertson Land 060° E 073° E [17]
Princess Elizabeth Land 073° E 087°55'20" E [18]
Kaiser Wilhelm II Land 087°55'20" E 091°58'33" E [19]
Queen Mary Land 091°58'33" E 100°31'32.5" E [20]
Wilkes Land 100°31'32.5" E 136° E [21]
George V Land 142° E 155° E [22]
Oates Land 155° E 164° E [23]

Administration

Flat snow-covered plain with a group of buildings and a small hill in the distance
Davis Station

The territory is administered by the Australian Antarctic Division within the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.[24] Australia has three permanent research stations in the territory: Mawson Station, Davis Station and Casey Station.[24] Australia established a permanent runway, the Wilkins Aerodrome, in the territory in 2007. The aerodrome is located south-east of Casey Station and is operational between October and March.[24][25] There are also several outposts and summer bases in the Australian Antarctic Territory that are staffed on a seasonal basis for environmental monitoring or for specific research purposes.[26] The number of Australians in the territory as part of the Australian Antarctic Program is about 500 in summer and 80 in winter.[27]

The Australian Antarctic Territory is governed by four sets of law, in order of priority: Commonwealth laws that explicitly include the territory within their scope, Commonwealth ordinances made for the territory, non-criminal laws of the Australian Capital Territory, and criminal laws of the Jervis Bay Territory.[28] Commonwealth ordinances made for the Australian Antarctic Territory have largely been focused on environmental protection and the enactment of international conventions, such as the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.[29] Under the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the laws of the Australian Antarctic Territory do not apply to foreign observers carrying out inspections in the territory under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, but do apply to Australian observers carrying out such inspections elsewhere in Antarctica.[30] Australia does not enforce the territory's laws against the citizens of other Antarctic Treaty signatories unless those citizens have voluntarily agreed to be subject to Australian law.[31]

The Australian Antarctic Territory has seen an increasing number of tourists, which has led Australia to take steps to manage tourism in the territory.[32] The Australian government requires tourism in the territory to meet two requirements: being ecologically sustainable and socially responsible.[33][34] The government has placed limits and conditions on tourist landings and has established site management plans for frequently visited sites.[35][36]

Sovereignty

The 1961 Antarctic Treaty froze current and future claims of sovereignty in Antarctica, leaving the status quo at the time of its signing in place. It also dictated that actions taken following the treaty's signing could not be used as the basis for future claims of sovereignty.[37][38][39] Australia's claim of sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic Territory is accepted by just four nations: Norway, New Zealand, France, and the United Kingdom.[40][41] Australia has positioned itself as a supporter of the Antarctic Treaty System.[42] The 2016 Australian Antarctic Strategy and 20 Year Action Plan describes Australia's national interests in Antarctica as including both the preservation of sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic Territory, and the maintenance of the Antarctic Treaty System and the continent's freedom from strategic competition.[43]

Australia has attempted to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, particularly whaling, in the seas surrounding its Antarctic territorial claim.[44] Japanese whaling in Australia's claimed exclusive economic zone has been a particularly contentious issue.[45] These whaling activities are prohibited under Australian law but are supported by the government of Japan, which disputes the claim that Australian law applies in the seas in question.[46][47] The International Court of Justice ruled in 2014 that Japan's whaling activities in the Southern Ocean were not carried out for scientific purposes and that it must cease its scientific whaling program in Antarctic waters.[48] Japan withdrew from scientific whaling in the Southern Ocean following the ruling, and instead began to focus on commercial whaling within the Japanese exclusive economic zone.[49]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Exploration and Expeditions: From Sealers to Science". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  2. ^ a b Kerr 2009, pp. 224–225.
  3. ^ Kerr 2009, pp. 225–226.
  4. ^ Kerr 2009, p. 227.
  5. ^ Kerr 2009, p. 228.
  6. ^ Kerr 2009, pp. 230–232.
  7. ^ Rothwell & Scott 2007, p. 9.
  8. ^ a b "History of Australian Antarctic Stations". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  9. ^ Greenwood & Harper 1963, p. 384.
  10. ^ Greenwood & Harper 1963, p. 393.
  11. ^ Kerr 2009, p. 235.
  12. ^ a b c "Australian Antarctic Territory". Geoscience Australia. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  13. ^ "Australian Antarctic Territory". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  14. ^ "Antarctic Weather". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.
  15. ^ "Enderby Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  16. ^ "Kemp Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  17. ^ "Mac.Robertson Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  18. ^ "Princess Elizabeth Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  19. ^ "Wilhelm II Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  20. ^ "Queen Mary Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  21. ^ "Wilkes Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  22. ^ "George V Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  23. ^ "Oates Land". Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Australian Antarctic Program. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  24. ^ a b c "Australian Antarctic Territory". The Europa World Year Book 2018. Vol. 1 (59 ed.). Routledge. 2018. p. 701. ISBN 978-1-85743-934-2.
  25. ^ "Wilkins Aerodrome". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.
  26. ^ Haward et al. 2006, p. 444.
  27. ^ "How many people live in Antarctica?". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  28. ^ "Australian Law". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  29. ^ Carney 2006, p. 483.
  30. ^ White 2009, p. 272.
  31. ^ Rothwell & Scott 2007, p. 12.
  32. ^ Powell & Jackson 2007, pp. 46–48.
  33. ^ Johnson & Kriwoken 2007, pp. 86–87.
  34. ^ "Australia's Antarctic Tourism Policy, March 2004". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  35. ^ Powell & Jackson 2007, pp. 48–49.
  36. ^ "Site use guidelines". Australian Antarctic Program. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
  37. ^ Haward et al. 2006, p. 443.
  38. ^ Buchanan 2023, p. 187.
  39. ^ White 2009, p. 260.
  40. ^ Carney 2006, p. 482.
  41. ^ Hodgson-Johnston 2015, p. 184.
  42. ^ Buchanan 2023, p. 188.
  43. ^ Buchanan 2023, p. 190.
  44. ^ Haward et al. 2006, pp. 441–442.
  45. ^ White 2009, p. 287.
  46. ^ White 2009, p. 288.
  47. ^ Rothwell & Scott 2007, p. 17.
  48. ^ "International court orders Japan to immediately stop whaling in Antarctic". ABC News. 31 March 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2026.
  49. ^ Hurst, Daniel (3 April 2020). "Japanese whaling is down but not out". Lowy Institute. Retrieved 3 April 2026.

Works cited

  • Buchanan, Elizabeth (2023). "Australia's Southern Flank: Antarctica". In Brooklyn, Bridget; Jones, Benjamin T.; Strating, Rebecca (eds.). Australia on the World Stage: history, politics, and international relations. Oxon: Routledge. pp. 185–197. ISBN 9781003221197.
  • Carney, Gerard (2006). "Commonwealth Territories". The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 436–488. ISBN 9780511607288.
  • Greenwood, Gordon; Harper, Norman (1963). "Australian Antarctic Territory". Australia in World Affairs 1956–1960. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 384–418. doi:10.1017/9781009458191.010. ISBN 9781009458191. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  • Haward, Marcus; Rothwell, Donald R.; Jabour, Julia; Hall, Robert; Kellow, Aynsley; Kriwoken, Lorne; Lugten, Gail; Hemmings, Alan (2006). "Australia's Antarctic Agenda". Australian Journal of International Affairs. 60 (3): 439–456. doi:10.1080/10357710600865705.
  • Hodgson-Johnston, Indi (2015). "Australian Politics and Antarctic Sovereignty: Themes, Protagonists and Antagonists". Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs. 7 (3): 183–202. doi:10.1080/18366503.2015.1101811.
  • Johnson, Murray P.; Kriwoken, Lorke K. (2007). "Emerging Issues of Australian Antarctic Tourism: Legal and Policy Directions". In Kriwoken, Lorne K.; Jabour, Julia; Hemmings, Alan D. (eds.). Looking South: Australia's Antarctic Agenda. Leichhardt: Federation Press. ISBN 9781862876576.
  • Kerr, Alan (2009). "Australian Antarctic Territory". A Federation in These Seas: An Account of the Acquisition by Australia of its External Territories. Commonwealth of Australia. pp. 247–266. ISBN 1921241721.
  • Powell, Stephen; Jackson, Andrew (2007). "Australian Influence in the Antarctic Treaty System: An End or a Means?". In Kriwoken, Lorne K.; Jabour, Julia; Hemmings, Alan D. (eds.). Looking South: Australia's Antarctic Agenda. Leichhardt: Federation Press. ISBN 9781862876576.
  • Rothwell, Donald R.; Scott, Shirley V. (2007). "Flexing Australian Sovereignty in Antarctica: Pushing Antarctic Treaty Limits in the National Interest". In Kriwoken, Lorne K.; Jabour, Julia; Hemmings, Alan D. (eds.). Looking South: Australia's Antarctic Agenda. Leichhardt: Federation Press. ISBN 9781862876576.
  • White, Michael W. D. (2009). "Antarctic and Southern Ocean Territories Laws". Australian Offshore Laws. Annandale: Federation Press. ISBN 9781862877429.
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