Gender roles in Islam

Gender roles in Islam are based on scriptures, cultural traditions, and jurisprudence.

The Quran, the holy book of Islam, indicates that both men and women are spiritually equal. The Quran states:

"Those who do good, whether male or female, and have faith will enter Paradise and will never be wronged; even as much as the speck on a date stone."^[1]

However, this notion of equality has not been reflected in several laws in Muslim-based institutions.^[2]

The Quran does not specify gender roles for women,^[3][4][5] but Islamic practice does. This is partially because men and women are at times allotted different rights and cultural expectations. Hadith Sahih Bukhari (9:89:252) states that a man is expected to be the "guardian of [his] family," whereas a woman is expected to be the "guardian of her husband's home and his children."^[6]

Cultural traditions often impact gender roles, prevailing cultural norms, and the interpretation of the Quran and other Islamic texts.^[7]

Some reformist and feminist scholars argue that the concept of guardianship has formed the basis of particular gender roles in Muslim societies. Women are often expected to be obedient wives and mothers, staying within the familial environment. Meanwhile, men are expected to be the protectors and caretakers of their families.^[8] However, the majority of Muslim scholars agree that women are not obligated to serve their husbands, do housework, or do any kind of work at home.^[9][10] According to Egypt's Dar-al-Ifta, it is regarded as permissible for a woman to go out for work if she has the consent of her husband. If there is no mutual consent, then it is not permissible for her to go out and work.^[11] Until the period of the rise of Islam, there were many ideas of certain actions and behaviors of women that should be expected that were considered traditional gender roles. Women were seen as inferior to men, and women were supposed to behave and respect men. In earlier times, women were seen as the housekeepers and relied on their husbands to protect them since they were thought to be not strong enough to take care of themselves.^[12]

According to Sayyid Qutb, a prominent member of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood in the 1950s and 1960s, the Quran "gives the man the right of 'guardianship' or 'superiority' over the family structure to prevent dissension and friction between the spouses. The equity of this system lies in the fact that God both favored the man with the necessary qualities and skills for the 'guardianship' and also charged him with the duty to provide for the structure's upkeep."^[13] Qutb's ideologies are still impactful for radical Islamists today, influencing such prominent Middle Eastern leaders as Ayman Zawahiri and terrorists as Osama bin Laden.^[14][15]

In Islamic culture, the roles played by men and women are equally important. Gender roles viewed from an Islamic perspective are based on the Qur'an and emphasize the dynamic structure of the family.^[16] As in any socio-cultural group, gender roles vary depending on the conservative or liberal nature of the specific group.

Although there are no elaborate roles for men and women in the Qur'an, it is strongly implied that each gender provides equally significant contributions to the family realm.

Chapter 4, in verse 34, in the Qur'an, states that "men are the maintainers of women,"^[17] because of the "wealth they have spent" on women and that believing women are "devoutly obedient" to their husbands and/or God and protect their faith ("al-ghayb") or the couple's house in husband's absence. Outside of this, there's very little explicit mention of specific gender roles in Qur'an despite difference in rulings regarding inheritance, polygamy, testimony in some cases, dowry and financial support to divorced women, especially when pregnant. Traditionally, it's accepted that a noble "husband's responsibilities commit him to support his wife and children, provide education for his offspring, be kind and attentive to his spouse, and be good to his affine".^[18] These values have remained rather consistent throughout the history of Islam. It is culturally understood that women do, and should, rely on men. This is viewed not as a restricting reliance, but as an arrangement to protect women from the distress and inconveniences of the public arenas.^[18] It is because of this ideology that women traditionally do not contribute to the household financially, leaving men to be the sole breadwinners.

The woman's role in the home, although different from that of men, is also of great value and importance in Islamic culture. In earlier times, from a very young age, girls traditionally grew up in the women's quarters of the house called the harem. The harem was that part of the house where the female members of the family and household lived. It was normally out of bounds to all males except the master of the house, his sons and perhaps a physician.^[19] Here, young girls were familiarized with domestic activities^[19] and were taught Islamic laws and values.

What is deemed feminine, and the "ideal" Muslim woman, is constantly changing. These changes are influenced by many things, including the global market and modernization. The Quran requires Muslim men and women to dress modestly.^[20] The law of the hijab states that the whole female body aside from the face and hands should be covered when a woman leaves her home^[21][22] as a sign of modesty, obedience to God and respect for Islamic values. Modernization has changed many aspects of femininity, in the past, and in the present.^[23] The global market is changing femininity by showcasing and promoting images that are desirable for an ideal Muslim woman,^[24] and this change has caused certain traditions for women to become outdated and contested.^[25] One tradition that is becoming less accepted is the veil; some women, though not all, now see this as degrading in today's world whereas in the past it was seen as a sign of respect.^[25] Regardless of traditions, women have been used throughout history as a cultural symbol of Muslim religious values,^[26] which has shaped what it means to be feminine in a society.

Several passages of the Quran deal with acceptable dress standards for both men and women. Surah 24, Verses 30-31 states:

"And tell the believing men to lower their gaze and be modest. That is purer for them and tell the believing women to lower their gaze and be modest, and to display of their adornment only that which is apparent, and to draw their veils over their bosoms, and not to reveal their adornment save to [those relatives who fall within bounds of close relationship explained in the Qur’an (i.e. the Mahrams)]..."^[27]

In Iran, breaking the Islamic dress code or participation in perceived cross dressing is a crime resulting in imprisonment.^[28]

For Friday prayers, by custom, Muslim's congregations segregate men, women, and children into separate groups. Men are expected to offer the five daily prayers at the nearest mosque. Muhammad specifically allowed Muslim women to attend mosques and pray behind men. Muhammad said, "Do not prevent your wife(s) from going to the mosque, even though their houses are better for them," implying women are recommended to stay at home. "A woman’s prayer in her house is better than her prayer in her courtyard, and her prayer in her bedroom is better than her prayer in her house." (Reported by Abu Dawud in al-Sunan, Baab maa jaa’a fee khurooj al-nisaa’ ilaa’l-masjid. See also Saheeh al-Jaami‘, no. 3833).^[29]

Female Genital Mutilation also referred as to as female circumcision or female genital cutting, is practiced in a limited number of Muslim-majority countries, including Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, and Egypt, where some communities regard it as a religious obligation.

However it varies significantly by region, ethnicity and the practice is not observed by majority of Muslims. In Sexual ethics and Islam: feminist reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and jurisprudence by Kecia Ali, she notes that female circumcision is neither universal among Muslims nor exclusive to them, and that it is also practiced in some non-Muslim communities.^[30]

Beliefs surrounding FGM are shaped by a combination of religion, cultural traditions, and social norms concerning female chastity and purity. Anthropologist Ellen Gruenbaum, drawing on ethnographic research in Sudan, found that explanations for the practice differed by gender. A majority of men cited “religious demand,” while women more frequently described it as a “good tradition.” Practitioners often do not clearly distinguish between religious and cultural motivations, making it difficult to attribute the practice solely to Islam.^[31]

Historically, FGM predates Islam and is believed to have originated in northeastern Africa. Over time, it became associated with some Muslim communities through the incorporation of pre-existing regional customs rather than through scriptural mandate. Some hadith (sayings attributed to the Prophet Muhammad) refer to female circumcision. One report, narrated by Umm ʿAtiyyah al-Ansariyyah and recorded in Sunan Abu Dawud, states that a woman in Medina used to perform circumcision and that the Prophet advised her not to cut severely. However many in the Muslim community dictate this Hadith to be weak. It is also important to note that FGM is not mentioned in the Quran.

According to Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in Contemporary Iran by Ziba Mir-Hosseini^[32], contemporary debates on Islam, family law, and gender can be understood through three broad approaches. Traditionalist, Neo-traditionalist, and Reformist. She argues that Islamic legal thought is not monolithic, but consists of competing interpretations shaped by historical, political, and social contexts.

The traditionalist approach is rooted in classical fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) developed by premodern jurists. It generally treats earlier legal rulings as authoritative and maintains gender distinctions in matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and guardianship. Majority of these rulings were made during a time where legal hierarchy between men and women was culturally embedded. Traditionalists often regard these rulings as closely linked to divine intent and therefore resistant to major reinterpretation.

The neo-traditionalist approach describes modern legal reforms that preserve many patriarchal assumptions of classical jurisprudence while adopting modern legal institutions. These systems may employ state courts, codified statutes, and procedural reforms, yet continue to privilege male authority. They are modern in form but traditional in content, meaning that legal modernization did not necessarily produce gender equality.

The reformist approach seeks to reconcile Islam with principles of justice, equality, and human rights through renewed interpretation of scripture and law. Fiqh is a human construction, and therefore open to change and reinterpretation. Through tools such as ijtihad (independent reasoning), reformists argue that Islamic law can support equal and ethical family relations in the contemporary world.

As of June 2018, women are allowed to drive in Saudi Arabia. They were the only country in the world which banned woman from driving.^[33][34] In some areas, such as Mecca, they are expected to cover their hair as well.^[7] While they have gained increased access to education and a few gender-segregated job opportunities, their representation in the labor market has increased from just over 10 percent in 2002 to 33 percent in 2021.^[35][36]

Women's development in Saudi Arabia has been relatively slower than in its neighboring Arab countries, especially regarding the improvement of female participation.^[7] In 2004, the fifth Jeddah Economic Forum held in Saudi Arabia had its first ever woman in key activities, with Lubna Olayan delivering the keynote speech.^[7]

The Islamic Republic of Iran has witnessed several advancements and setbacks for women's roles in the past 40 years, especially following the Iranian Revolution in 1979. After the revolution, Iranian women had more opportunities in some areas and more restrictions in others. One of the striking features of the revolution was the large-scale participation of women from traditional backgrounds in demonstrations leading up to the overthrow of the monarchy. The culture of education for women was established by the time of the revolution so that even after the revolution, large numbers of women entered civil service and higher education,^[37] After the 1989 Iranian constitutional referendum, changes resulted in an improvement in the lives and opportunities of women.^[38] Since then, several women have been elected to the Iranian parliament and more women participate in civil service.^[39] This is partially due to women taking advantage of higher educational opportunities. Iranian female education went from a 46 percent literacy rate, to 83 percent. Iran ranked 10th in terms of female literacy in the 1970s, and still holds this position.^[40] The Hijab became compulsory as well as modesty requirements; loose-fitting clothing as well as a Rusari (headscarf) that covers all the hair.^[41][42] On the economic front, Women's labor force participation rate and literacy rate have been on the rise. Yet the unemployment rate for women compared to that of men is still considerably higher.^[43][40]

In the Afghanistan, women's rights have oscillated back and forth depending on the time period. After the fall of Kabul in 2021 during the Taliban insurgency and subsequent takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban, concern about the future of women in the country increased.^[44] For the past 18 years, there were improvements in girls' education in which 4 out of 10 children were girls, according to a report by UNESCO. Due to the pressure from United Nations and International Organizations, Talibans were forced to allow women for education including under-graduate and post-graduate.^[45]

Apart from the education rights, the Women's Ministry was also replaced by the Ministry of Vice and Virtue. These groups of Islamic religious police were considered very harsh and even beat women if they were spotted without male guardians or dressed immodestly.^[46]

• Islamic clothing
• Islam and domestic violence
• Islamic Feminism
• Status of women's testimony in Islam

• Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
• Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1746-9.
• Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
• Roald, Ann-Sofie (2003). Women in Islam: The Western Experience. London: Routledge.