Laguna Miscanti

Laguna Miscanti
Laguna Miscanti
Location of Miscanti Lake in Chile.
Location of Miscanti Lake in Chile.
Laguna Miscanti
LocationAntofagasta Region
Coordinates23°43′30″S 67°45′54″W / 23.725°S 67.765°W / -23.725; -67.765
Basin countriesChile
Surface area13.5 km2 (5.2 sq mi)
Surface elevation4,140 m (13,580 ft)[1]

Laguna Miscanti is a brackish water lake located in the Altiplano of the Antofagasta Region in northern Chile. It has an area of 12.75 ± 0.02 square kilometres (4.9228 ± 0.0077 sq mi) and a shape of an arrow. The lake has no surface inflows or outflows other than several springs, being drained and supplied mainly through groundwater. Laguna Miscanti lies among the volcanoes of the Central Andes; the smaller Laguna Miñiques lake is south of Miscanti and separated from it by a lava flow.

The lake formed through tectonic processes about 22,000 years ago. During the late Pleistocene, a wetter climate coinciding with the Central Andean Pluvial Events and the formation of Lake Tauca caused Laguna Miscanti to grow in size, possibly until it merged with Laguna Miñiques. During the Holocene, climate grew dry again and Laguna Miscanti shrank and possibly dried out completely, leaving a wetland. 3400 years ago the lake reformed and has been in existence since.

Laguna Miscanti is an important breeding site for numerous birds, and an important tourism destination in the Los Flamencos National Reserve of which it is part of. In prehistoric times humans used the area as a hunting ground; several archaeological sites have been identified in its vicinity.

The lake

Laguna Miscanti[a] lies in the Central Andes[5] of Chile's[6] Antofagasta Region,[7] east-southeast of the Salar de Atacama.[8] The closest town is Socaire, 20 kilometres (12 mi) away from the lake;[9] San Pedro de Atacama is 90 kilometres (56 mi) north of Laguna Miscanti.[8] A road departing from the Paso Sico international road[b] goes to Miscanti,[11][12] which is accessible by a rough[13] unpaved road and numerous footpaths[14] leading to Laguna Miñiques.[15]

Laguna Miscanti has a surface area of 12.75 ± 0.02 square kilometres (4.9228 ± 0.0077 sq mi), varying between 12.27–13.21 square kilometres (4.74–5.10 sq mi)[16] depending on meteorological conditions, such as precipitation.[17] The lake, one of the largest waterbodies of the Atacama Altiplano,[18] has the shape of an arrowhead with a peninsula jutting from the northern shore.[6] Maximum water depths reach 10 metres (33 ft).[19] The western lakefloor is steep, while the slopes off the eastern and southern shores are gentler.[20] A lava flow separates the otherwise flat lake floor into two basins.[21] A number of dry valleys - there are no no streams at Laguna Miscanti[22] - enter into Laguna Miscanti from the north, east and south[15] (Quebrada de Chaquisoqui[1]), and there are two springs in the bays on either side of the peninsula.[6]

The waters[c] are clear[20] and brackish[d],[19] with no or only weak water currents.[20] Water reaches Laguna Miscanti principally underground,[20] which is directed there by the fault; this[25] or the climatic traits of the area may explain why Laguna Miscanti is a permanent lake rather than a playa.[26]

The lake has no surface outflow[27][19] and most water leaves Laguna Miscanti through evaporation,[28] making it a closed basin.[24] Some water leaves underground, to the 10 metres (33 ft) lower Miñiques through a lava flow[27][19] along the path of the Quebrada Nacimiento fault,[24] and possibly to Salar de Atacama;[29] the removal of salts through this outflow prevents Miscanti from becoming a salt pan.[e][24] The lake produces banded muddy[31] sediments consisting of fossils[f], salts[g][24] and volcanic tephra layers[h].[33]

1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) south of[34] the lake is another waterbody, Laguna Miñiques;[35] separating the two is a low ridge[27] that probably formed in the Pleistocene.[36] West of the lake is the Chuculaqui[6] or Miscanti Ridge.[37] The surrounding terrain is covered by lake sediments, including calcarenite, diatomite, gravel and sand.[38] Former shorelines occur at distances approaching 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the present-day lake shore.[20]

Laguna Miscanti

Palaeolake

In the past, Laguna Miscanti more than twice as large as today,[39] covering an area of 38.2 square kilometres (14.7 sq mi). Its water levels were about 29 metres (95 ft) higher than today, reaching an altitude of 4,179 metres (13,711 ft),[20] and may have merged with Laguna Miñiques[24] or formed a lake chain with it.[40] The lake submerged alluvial fans[41] and left beach terraces,[19] lacustrine sediments[i][28] and wavecut platforms.[24] There was more life in the lake during the highstand:[45] Algal bioherms[46] and stromatolithes grew in the water[24] and along the shores.[44] Fossils indicate the presence of the green algae Botryococcus patagonicum, Botryococcus pila[47] and Pediastrum integrum, and of Ranunculus plants.[48] During former lake highstands Miscanti overflowed into the Pampa Varela basin[19] south-southwest of Miñiques,[49] where a number of former shorelines are visible.[50]

Geology and geomorphology

The catchment of the lake consists mainly of volcanic and sedimentary rocks ranging from Miocene to Holocene age and covers a surface area of 320 square kilometres (120 sq mi).[19] Quaternary volcanoes with summit elevations of 5,000–6,000 metres (16,000–20,000 ft) dot the catchment.[9] Among these are Cerro Miscanti (5,622 metres (18,445 ft)) and Cerro Miñiques (5,910 metres (19,390 ft)) northeast and south of the lake, respectively.[49] The volcanoes are part of the Andean Volcanic Belt, which is formed by the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate.[41] The Cordon de Puntas Negras is the main source of Laguna Miscanti's water.[24]

The region is characterized by north-south trending mountain chains, which delimit various basins filled by salt flats or lakes.[51] The lakes Laguna Lejia,[28] Laguna Miscanti and Laguna Miñiques occupy basins formed by tectonic activity,[34][19][28] specifically of the 100 kilometres (62 mi) long[52] Quebrada Nacimiento[24] or Miscanti fault[53] west of Laguna Miscanti,[37] one of the most important faults in the region.[54] It is the easternmost of a set of thrust faults[j] associated with compression in the forearc of the Andes,[56] and its reactivation during[28] the Pliocene and Pleistocene formed the basins[24] and the Miscanti Ridge.[37][57]

The fault extends from the Purico complex[58] at Llano de Chajnantor to Cerro Miñiques,[57] and is part of a detachment fault system east of the Salar de Atacama[53] separating the Western Cordillera from the Cordillera Domeyko.[28][20] Volcanoes[28] including Lascar[59] and the Cerros Saltar and Corona north and south of Lascar formed on the fault,[60] possibly under its influence.[61]

Climate

There are no long-running weather records from Laguna Miscanti.[62] Temperatures are cold, with average[k] annual temperatures of 2 °C (36 °F),[63] being slightly higher on the lake than the surrounding region.[64] Temperature differences between day and night are stark, during night they can decrease to −10 – −20 °C (14 – −4 °F).[65] Days are usually clear and sunny.[65] Parts of the lake surface freeze over during winter.[19]

The region features an arid climate,[35] with the annual evaporation rate of 2 metres per year (0.21 ft/Ms) vastly exceeding the average precipitation of 200–250 mm/a (7.9–9.8 in/year).[20] The aridity is due to the combined effects of the rain shadow of the Andes, the cold Humboldt Current off the coast in the Pacific Ocean and the subtropical anticyclone.[66] Most precipitation falls during summer (December-February)[20] during the so-called "Bolivian Winter",[67] but winter precipitation is significant[l]. Depending on the season, it is brought by the summer monsoon, weather fronts or cutoff lows[24] but its ultimate origin is the Amazon.[68] The El Niño-Southern Oscillation pattern of climatic variability influences precipitation in the Altiplano,[68] being usually higher at Laguna Miscanti during La Nina events[69] when more Amazon moisture reaches the area.[67]

Geologic history

Laguna Miscanti may have formed 22,000 years ago, when tectonic and volcanic activity trapped water in the future lake basin. Initially after formation, the lake reached its highstand for the first time.[20] At some point in the Pleistocene a lava flow erupted from Cerro Miñiques produced the barrier separating Miñiques and Miscanti.[25][57] About 18,000 years ago,[20] the Last Glacial Maximum turned drier[m][71] and colder, leading to a total disappearance of vegetation[72] and a drying of the lake between 22,000 and 14,000 years ago.[73]

In the Late Glacial[28]/late Pleistocene and early Holocene the climate of the Atacama and Central Andes was much wetter (Central Andean Pluvial Event[74] or "Tauca phase"[18]) and precipitation nearly doubled in the southern Atacama.[75] Vegetation extended into the Atacama[76] and lakes formed (Lake Tauca) or grew in size[77] until the water-covered area in the region had reached 5-10 times that of present-day waterbodies.[78] This humid period has been subdivided into two stages,[35] the wetter[79] Tauca or CAPE I (17,500–14,200 years before present) and Coipasa or CAPE II (13,800–9,700 years before present), which are not entirely synchronous between the Atacama and the Altiplano.[35][74] The second highstand of Laguna Miscanti took place during CAPE II.[20][80] Pollen data indicate that a stronger easterly wind was responsible for the highstand at Miscanti.[71]

The Holocene brought a more stable,[81] warmer and drier climate to the central and south-central Andes which causes the lakes to shrink. Miscanti became hypersaline[75] as water levels dropped by about 10 metres (33 ft).[82] It may have dried up completely, forming a bog[20] or mudflat surrounded by wetlands that attracted camelids[20] like guanacos and vicuñas.[83] The dry period was caused by decreased insolation caused by the Milankovich cycles weakening the monsoon.[84][85] A widespread abandonment of archaeological sites, the "archaeological silence", coincides with the drought although Miscanti itself remained inhabited during that time.[34] The exact chronology of the dry period depends on the site,[34] in the case of Laguna Miscanti, there are uncertainties caused by issues with radiocarbon dating,[86] and some places might have been wetter during the middle Holocene.[87]

Occasional storms caused floods even during the dry period,[88] and there were short (yearly to sub-decadal) wet periods that are not recorded in the lake.[89] There were wet pulses on century or decade time scales,[20] and a brief moist epoch between 6,500 and 5,000 years ago.[90] The late Holocene saw renewed wetness in the region;[91] at Miscanti the dry period definitively ended after about 4,000 years ago[92] through several pulses of moisture,[93] and human resettlement at Laguna Miscanti took place about 3,400 years ago.[94] The lake reformed 3,600 years ago and has remained since.[20] More recent fluctuations include a dry period between 1650–1850 AD[n], perhaps linked to the ending Little Ice Age.[96] Between 1980 and 2000 water levels were approximately stable, then decreased until about 2015 when another upward trend began.[97] Such variabiliy is consistent with the behaviour of high-altitude lakes of northern Chile, which have not been impacted by the Chilean megadrought.[98]

Biology

Aquatic plants[20] like Myriophyllum[46] and charophytes[99] like Chara grow on the lake floor;[46] Chara globularis meadows[45][63] cover most of the lake floor.[22] Animals living in the waters of Laguna Miscanti include amphipods,[100] branchiopods (Chydorus sphaericus),[101] cladocerans (Alona pulchella and Daphnia)[o], copepods (Boeckella poopoensis[p])[105] and ostracods (Hyalella fossamanchini and Hyalella kochi).[101] Microorganisms living in the lake waters include bacteria[106] and ciliates;[107] fossils of diatoms[24] and the ostracod Limnocythere sappaensis[q] occur in the sediments of Laguna Miscanti.[108]

The beaches of Laguna Miscanti and alluvial cones feature meadows consisting of Fabiana, Festuca, Ruppia and Stipa chrysophylla. Sparser[r] vegetation[46][20] known as "tolar" grows on the surrounding terrain. It is dominated by grasses, along with bushes and perennial herbs;[109] species include Baccharis, ichu[110] and yareta.[111] Above 4,250 metres (13,940 ft) elevation, vegetation disappears and the landscape transitions to high-altitude desert.[65] Vegetation composition has been stable during the Holocene.[112]

The two lakes are important breeding sites for flamingos[113] and horned coot.[114] Other birds found in the region include Anarhynchus alticola (Puna plover), Chloephaga melanoptera (Andean goose; aquatic), Fulica ardesiaca (Andean coot), Fulica cornuta (Horned coot), Fulica gigantea (Giant coot), Larus serranus (Andean gull; aquatic), Lophonetta speculiarioides (Crested duck), Metriopelia melanoptera (Black-winged ground dove), Nycticorax nycticorax (Black-crowned night heron; aquatic), Podiceps occipitalis (Silvery grebe), Rhea tarapacensis (Darwin's rhea) and Tinamotis pentlandii (Puna tinamou).[115][65] Mammals like Chinchilla chinchilla (Short-tailed chinchilla), Ctenomys opimus (Highland tuco-tuco), Lagidium viscacia (Southern viscacha), Lama guanaco (Guanaco), Oreailurus jacobita (Andean mountain cat), Phyllotis darwini (Darwin's leaf-eared mouse), Pseudalopex culpaeus (culpeo) and Vicugna vicugna (vicuña) inhabit the area.[65][116] Threatened species, including butterflies, are found at Laguna Miscanti.[117]

Human activities

Tourism is an important activity in the region,[118] regional tourism is of national importance.[119] The spectacular[120] landscape of Laguna Miscanti and Miñiques, with its surrounding mountains and birds, is a tourist attraction[27] and the lakes among the best-known of Chile.[120] Political and infrastructural undertakings in the San Pedro de Atacama area during the 1980s created the necessary conditions,[121] with new infrastructure (including housing for staff close to Miscanti) being inaugurated in 2004.[8] Laguna Miscanti and Laguna Miñiques are part of the third sector of the Los Flamencos National Reserve[s],[127] and among the most known destinations in the national park.[128] In 2002, there were 5,000 tourists at Miscanti and the nearby lake Miñiques,[129] increasing to 75,000 in 2015; that year, one in three tourists who went to the National Reserve visited the two lakes.[130] Access requires payment[13] and it is forbidden to leave the footpaths around the lake.[131]

Disputes over water rights and concerns about the use of water sources are commonplace in the region.[132] Water consumption by mining companies is particularly contentious;[133] the "Pampa Colorada" dispute erupted in 2007 about a project to draw water from the Miscanti watershed, including local protests and an intervention by the environmental authorities;[134] the project was eventually halted.[135] Since about 1997,[136] the town of Peine draws its water supply from the Chakizoke spring in the Miscanti basin;[137][138] it is of higher quality than the town's earlier water sources.[136]

The inhabitants of Socaire used the area for grazing, and it bears spiritual and religious importance for them.[8] Laguna Miscanti is of scientific importance, as it has a record of vegetation (including remote vegetation)[139] and palaeoclimatic changes going back to the last glacial maximum.[20]

Archaeology

An archeological site ("Miscanti-1")[75] has been discovered on a beach terrace[t] at the southeastern end of the lake. It contains remnants of animals, hearths and lithic artifacts[u] buried in volcanic ash.[20] The site was used during the dry middle Holocene.[34] It was presumably a campsite used by prehistoric hunter-gatherer populations,[144] which produced hunting tools and consumed game there.[145] Another site is Tulan-99, a camp situated between the Miscanti and Miñiques lakes.[146] Other archaeological findings[v] in the area include petroglyphs[149] and sites interpreted as stops along frequently used prehistoric paths, which reflect a seasonal or periodic use of the Laguna Miscanti area.[150] Humans arrived in lower altitude areas first, reaching Miscanti only later,[151] and there might have been seasonal migration to the Miscanti area during summer via the Tulan valley.[152]

Climate variability influenced human settlement in the region during the Holocene, which took place mainly during wetter periods[96] when the environment became much more favourable[w],[75] becoming concentrated in several environmentally favourable spaces during dry periods. At Miscanti, wetlands and areas suitable for grazing formed during the middle Holocene drought[x], thus the area remained hospitable for human inhabitation.[34]

Notes

  1. ^ The word means "toad".[2] Alternate spellings are Miskanti[3] or Miscanter. Miscanter might be the correct Kunza name and "Miscanti" its Quechuization.[4]
  2. ^ In the 20th century, a regionally important Andes-crossing road passed by Laguna Miscanti.[10]
  3. ^ Most of the water is more than 65 years old, lacking tritium.[23]
  4. ^ Salinity is about 5 grams per litre (0.80 oz/imp gal), making Miscanti the least salty of all lakes in the region. The salt is mostly sodium (calcium-magnesium-potassium) sulfate and chloride.[24]
  5. ^ W.E.Rudolph in 1963 postulated that Miscanti and Miñiques were merely at an early stage of a process of salt lake formation. Salt accumulation increases the surface over which evaporation takes place, until the waterbodies dry up.[30]
  6. ^ Charophytes and diatoms.[31]
  7. ^ Aragonite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum and opal.[32]
  8. ^ Some sources assert there are no recognizable tephra layers in Laguna Miscanti.[25]
  9. ^ Stromatolithes, sand, pyroclastic rocks, gravel, diatomites and calcarenites.[28] The sediment sequence at Miscanti resembles that at Miñiques, Lejia and Laguna Tuyajto,[42] and were deposited at a rate of about 1 millimetre per year (0.0012 in/Ms),[43] eventually reaching a thickness of 6–10 metres (20–33 ft) in sediment cores.[44]
  10. ^ At the fault, ignimbrites are pushed over Tertiary rocks of the Quepe Formation.[55]
  11. ^ Varying by about 8–10 °C (46–50 °F) between seasons.[63]
  12. ^ The region lies between areas dominated by summer precipitation in the northeast and areas dominated by winter precipitation in the southwest.[35]
  13. ^ Than present-day.[70]
  14. ^ Or 1920 AD[95]
  15. ^ The presence of daphnids is however uncertain.[102]
  16. ^ Boeckella poopoensis is the main crustacean of waterbodies in the region[103] and at Laguna Miscanti[104]
  17. ^ According to some sources the only species at Laguna Miscanti.[85]
  18. ^ The landscape around the lake is sometimes described as barren.[63]
  19. ^ Which was founded in 1990.[122] They are jointly administered by the community of Socaire and by the National Forest Corporation[123] since 2003.[124] Such joint administration of important heritage sites in the region became commonplace during the late 1990s, as part of a greater integration of indigenous people into administrative affairs.[125] Laguna Miscanti is within the La Grande indigenous development area,[126] a demarcation established in 1997.[126]
  20. ^ Archaeological sites are typically found around the shores of the palaeolakes.[140]
  21. ^ Lithic deposits found at Miscanti include pentagonal lithics[141] and the "Tambillo" triangular lithics (common around palaeolakes in the area).[142] Several types of lithics have been named after Miscanti.[143]
  22. ^ The Miscanti-Miñiques area, where there are sites with obsidian, may have also been used as a source for obsidian in the region.[147][148]
  23. ^ And new archaeological phases began; the Tilocalar phase in the Atacama commenced about the time that Laguna Miscanti filled again[153] although Tilocalar might have been a refuge during hyperarid periods.[154]
  24. ^ Coinciding with the "Middle Archaic" period in the periodization of pre-Columbian Peru.[141]

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