List of Indo-European languages

  An Indo-European language is the majority native language
  An Indo-European language is a co-official and majority native language
  An Indo-European language is an official but minority native language
  An Indo-European language is a cultural or secondary language
  An Indo-European language is not widely spoken
The approximate present-day distribution of the Indo-European branches within their homelands of Europe and Asia:
  Albanian
  Armenian
  Balto-Slavic (Baltic)
  Balto-Slavic (Slavic)
  Celtic
  Germanic
  Hellenic (Greek)
  Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani)
  Italic (Romance)
  Non-Indo-European languages
Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
Romance languages in the world
The approximate present-day distribution of Indo-European languages within the Americas by country:
Romance:
  Spanish
  Portuguese
  French
Germanic:
  English
  Dutch

This is a list of languages in the Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.

Numbers of languages and language groups

The Indo-European languages include some 449 (SIL estimate, 2018 edition[1]) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in Europe, and western and southern Asia, belong to the Indo-European language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers. The Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch. The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the SIL estimate, 2018 edition,[1] are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.

Definition of language

The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect. Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.

Summary of historical development

The ancestral population and language, Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through migration and cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, acculturation and language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern Eurasia.[2] This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family. By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern Eurasia (including western Central Asia). In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further. Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement. However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to North Asia (Siberia), through Russian expansion, and North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand as the result of the age of European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.) The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of European colonization, also gave origin to the many pidgins, creoles and mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).

Proto-Indo-European

Dating the split-offs of the main branches

Indo-European migrations as described in The Horse, the Wheel, and Language by David W. Anthony

Although all Indo-European languages descend from a common ancestor called Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated. However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened.[3] Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:[4]

David W. Anthony, following the methodology of Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow, proposes the following sequence:[4]

The list below follows Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.[5] quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press. The Indo-European phylogenetic tree of subfamilies or branches is also based in Chang, Chundra & Hall 2015, pp. 199–200 and Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241.

Anatolian languages (all extinct)

Anatolian languages in 2nd millennium BC; Blue: Luwian, Yellow: Hittite, Red: Palaic.

Unclassified (within Anatolian)

Possibly Anatolian

  • Hitite or Luwian
    • Cappadocian?
  • Luwic-Palaic
    • Luwic
      • Isaurian?
      • Lycaonian?
      • Cilician?
      • Commagenian?
    • Palaic
      • Paphlagonian?

Tocharian languages (Agnean-Kuchean) (all extinct)

Tocharian languages: A (blue), B (red) and C (green) in the Tarim Basin.[11] Tarim oasis towns are given as listed in the Book of Han (c. 2nd century BC). The areas of the squares are proportional to population.
  • Proto-Agnean-Kuchean ("Proto-Tocharian")
    • North-Tocharian[12][13][14]
      • Tocharian A (Agnean) (Turfanian / East Tocharian) (Agni / Ārśi)
      • Tocharian B (Kuchean) (West Tocharian) (Kuśiññe / Kučiññe)
    • South Tocharian
      • Tocharian C (Kroränian) (possible)[15] (Krorainic / Lolanisch / South Tocharian)

Armenian language

Armenian dialects, according to Adjarian (1909) (before 1st World War and Armenian Genocide). In many regions of the contiguous area shown in the map, Armenian speakers were the majority or a significant minority.
Modern geographical distribution of the Armenian language.
  • Proto-Armenian (extinct)
    • Classical Armenian (գրաբար - grabar) (Old Armenian)
      • Liturgical Armenian
      • Middle Armenian (Միջին հայերէն - Miǰin Hayerēn) / Cilician Armenian (կիլիկեան հայերէն - Kilikyan Hayerēn)
        • Modern Armenian (աշխարհաբար - Ashkharhabar)
          • Armenian (հայերեն - Hayerēn) (Broad Armenian) (dialect continuum)
            • Armenian Standards
              • Eastern Armenian (Արեւելահայերեն - Arevelahayerēn)
              • Western Armenian (Արեւմտահայերէն - Arevmdahayerēn)
            • Armenian dialects[16]
              • Eastern Armenian (dialect continuum)
                • -owm dialects
                  • Araratian
                    • Yerevan
                      • Modern Eastern Armenian Standard
                  • Jugha / Julfa
                  • Zok[17][18] (could be a distinct armenian language)
                    • Agulis
                    • Meghri
                  • Artsakh / Karabagh Armenian
                  • Eastern Armenian dialects in the diaspora
                    • Tiflis / Tbilisi Armenian
                    • Shamakha (nearly extinct)
                    • Astrakhan Armenian (extinct)
                    • Iranian Armenian dialect (Persian Armenian - պարսկահայերէն - Parskahayerēn)
                      • Northwest Iran Armenian
                        • Tabriz Armenian (Tavrezh)
                      • North Iran Armenian
                        • Tehran Armenian
                      • Central Iran Armenian
                • -el dialects
                  • Ardvin / Tayk
                  • Nor Shirakan
                    • Khoy
                    • Maragha
              • Western Armenian (dialect continuum)
                • -gë dialects
                  • Karin (Erzurum Armenian) / Upper Armenia (Bardzr Hayk')
                  • Turuberan
                    • Mush / Taron
                      • Gavar
                  • Van / Vaspurakan
                    • Torfavan
                  • Tigranakert / Aghdznik (Arzanene) (nearly extinct)
                  • Kharpert-Yerznka / (Tsopk') (nearly extinct)
                  • Shabin–Karahisar
                  • Trapizon / Trabzon Armenian (nearly extinct)
                  • Malatia (extinct)
                    • Adiyaman
                  • Cilician Armenian (nearly extinct)
                  • Sueidia / Syrian Armenian
                    • Vakıflı
                    • Kessab
                    • Latakia
                    • Jisr al-Shughur
                    • Anjar
                  • Arabkir (almost extinct)
                  • Akn (almost extinct)
                  • Sebastia / Sivas Armenian (nearly extinct)
                  • Tokat (almost extinct)
                  • Western Armenian dialects in the diaspora
                    • West Anatolia diaspora
                      • Nicomedia / Izmit Armenian
                      • Constantinople / Istanbul Armenian (nearly extinct)
                      • Rodosto / Tekirdağ Armenian (extinct)
                      • Smyrna / Izmir Armenian
                    • Black Sea diaspora
                      • Crimean Armenian
                        • Nakhichevan-on-Don / Nor Nakhichevan - New Nakhichevan / Don Armenian
                    • Levant diaspora
                      • Kaghakatsi / Jerusalem Armenian (Armenian Quarter)
                    • European diaspora
                      • Austria-Hungary (extinct)
                    • North American diaspora
                    • South American diaspora
                    • Australian diaspora
                  • Homshetsi[19] (could be a distinct archaic armenian language)

Hellenic languages

Distribution of Greek dialects in Greece in the classical period.[20]
Distribution of Greek dialects in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily) in the classical period.
Modern Greek dialects until 1923[21]
Anatolian Greek until 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian-Greek-speaking villages in 1910.[22]
The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas.
  • Proto-Greek[23] (extinct)
    • Mycenaean Greek (extinct)
      • Ancient Greek (Classical Greek) (Ἑλληνική – Hellēnikḗ / Ἑλληνική γλῶσσα – Hellēnikḗ glōssa) (extinct) (Dialect continuum)
        • Ancient Greek dialects[24][25]
          • East Greek
            • Central Group (extinct)
            • Eastern Group
              • Ionic (extinct)
                • Ionic Literary Dialect
                • Attic (extinct)
                  • Koine Greek (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος – hē koinḕ diálektos / Kοινὴ – Koinḕ)
                    • Biblical Greek
                    • Medieval Greek / Byzantine Greek) (Ῥωμαϊκή - Rōmaïkē, Romaic - Eastern Roman Empire Greek) (Dialect continuum)
                      • Modern Greek
                        • Greek (ελληνικά – Elliniká) (Broad Greek) (Dialect continuum)
                          • Greek Standards
                            • Katharevousa (Καθαρεύουσα – Katharevousa) / Old Standard Greek
                            • Demotic (Δημοτική γλώσσα – Dimotikí glṓssa) / Modern Standard Greek
                          • Modern Greek dialects[26][27]
                            • Southern dialects
                              • Archaic dialects
                              • Ionian-Peloponnesian
                                • Peloponnesian
                                • Ionian Islands
                                • South Euboean
                              • Cretan-Cycladian
                              • Southeastern
                                • Chiote-Ikarian
                                • Dodecanesian
                                • Lycian Greek
                                • Cypriot
                              • North Epirote
                            • Northern dialects
                              • Central dialects ("Semi-Northern")
                                • North Euboean-Sporadic
                                • Skyriot
                                • Mykonian
                                • Desfinan
                                • Lefkadan
                              • Northern Proper
                                • Thessalian
                                • South Epirote
                                • Vourbianian
                                • Kastorian
                                • Naousan
                                • Macedonian Greek
                                • Sarakatsanian (Sarakatsanika)
                                • Thracian Greek
                                • Rumelian Greek
                                • Constantinopolitan Greek
                                • Bithynian Greek
                                • Artakian
                                • Western Anatolian
                                  • North Aegean
                                    • Lesbic (Lesbos Island Greek)
                                    • Lemnic (Lemnos Island Greek)
                                  • Smyrniote (Smyrna Greek)
                                  • Samian (Samos Island Greek)
                            • Greco-Australian
                      • Asia Minor Greek / Anatolian Greek[28]
                      • Italiot Greek[29]
                        • Salentinian Greek / Griko (Γκρίκο – Gríko)
                        • Calabrian Greek / Grecanico (Γκραίκο – Graíko)
                      • Yevanic (Judæo-Greek / Romaniote) (probably extinct)
                • West Ionic / Euboean
                  • Chalcidician
                • Central Ionic / Cycladian Ionic / Northern Cycladian
                • East Ionic / Asia Minor Ionic
          • West Greek / Doric / Dorian (extinct)
            • Northwest Greek / Northwest Doric (extinct)
              • Locrian Greek (extinct)
              • Phocian-Delphian
              • Elean
              • Northwest Greek koine
            • Achaean Doric (extinct)
              • Achaean Doric
              • Achaean Doric Koine
            • Doric proper
              • Megarian
              • Corinthian
              • Argolic
              • Laconian
                • Tsakonian (Tσακώνικα – Tsakṓnika / A Tσακώνικα γρούσσα – A Tsakṓnika gloússa)[30]
              • Messenian
              • Cretan
              • Cycladian Doric / Southern Cycladian
                • Thera-Cyrenaean
                  • Thera (Santorini) Island
                  • Cyrenaean Greek
              • Asia Minor Doric
                • Rhodian / Rhodes Island
                • Coan / Cos Island
    • Ancient Macedonian[31] (extinct)

Albanian language

Distribution of modern Albanian dialects.
  • Proto-Albanian (extinct)
    • Albanian (Modern Albanian) (shqip / gjuha shqipe) (dialect continuum)
      • Albanian dialects[32][33]
        • Gheg Albanian (gegnisht) (Northern Albanian dialect)
          • Northern Gheg
            • Northwestern Gheg
              • Malësia
              • Kraja
              • Shkodër and Lezhë
            • Northeastern Gheg
              • East Drin basin
              • Nikaj and Mertur
              • Tropoja
              • Kosovë and Metohi / Kosovo Albanian
          • Central / Middle Gheg
            • Mati
            • Upper Reka
          • Southern Gheg
            • Elbasan Gheg
            • Old Tirana
            • Peqin Province
            • Southern Gheg diaspora
              • Arbanasi
              • Istrian Albanian (extinct)
        • Tosk Albanian (toskërisht) (Southern Albanian dialect) (basis of Standard Albanian)
          • Northern Tosk
            • Northwest Tosk
              • Berat
              • Skrapar
              • Vlora
            • Northeast Tosk
              • Opar
              • Devoll
              • Korçë
            • Southeast
            • Middle Vjosa
            • Northern Tosk diaspora
          • Southern Tosk
            • Lab (Labërishtja)
              • East Drinos Valley
              • Bregdeti i Poshtëm
              • Vurg of Delvina
            • Cham (Çamërishte)
              • Souliot Cham (extinct)
          • Transitional Northern-Southern Tosk / Tosk diaspora

Italic languages

Iron Age Italy (c.500 B.C.). Italic languages in green colours.
Length of the Roman rule and the Romance Languages[34]
Romance languages in Europe (major dialect groups are also shown).
European extent of Romance languages in the 20th century
Eastern and Western Romance areas split by the La Spezia–Rimini Line; Southern Romance is represented by Sardinian as an outlier.
Romance languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Romance languages are spoken. Dark colours: First language, Light colours: Official or Co-Official language; Very Light colours: Spoken by a significant minority as first or second language. Blue: French; Green: Spanish; Orange: Portuguese; Yellow: Italian; Red: Romanian.
  • Proto-Italic (extinct)
    • Osco-Umbrian (Sabellic) (all extinct)
    • Latino-Faliscan languages
      • Faliscan (extinct)
      • Lanuvian (extinct)
      • Praenestinian (extinct)
      • Latin (Lingua Latina)
        • Old Latin (Early Latin / Archaic Latin) (Prisca Latina / Prisca Latinitas) (extinct)
          • Classical Latin (LINGVA LATINA – Lingua Latina) (extinct)
            • Standard Latin (extinct)
            • Vulgar Latin / Colloquial Latin (sermō vulgāris) (extinct)
            • Pannonian Latin (extinct)
            • British Latin / Britannic Latin (extinct)
            • Judeo-Latin (Judæo-Latin) (extinct)
            • Late Latin (extinct)
              • Ecclesiastical Latin (Church Latin, Liturgical Latin) (Lingua Latina Ecclesiastica)
              • Medieval Latin (extinct)
              • Late Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris) (Proto-Romance) (extinct)
                • Romance (dialect continuum)
                  • Continental Romance
                    • Italo-Western languages (dialect continuum)
                      • Disputed Italo-Western
                        • Franco-Italian (extinct)
                      • Italo-Dalmatian languages (dialect continuum)
                        • Central Italian (Italiano Mediano)
                          • Latian (Laziale)
                            • Romanesco (Romanesco / Romano)
                            • Central-Southern
                            • Central-Northern Latian / Ciociaro[35]
                              • Judeo-Roman dialect (Giudeo-Romanesco)
                          • Sabino
                            • Carseolano / Sublacense
                            • Tagliacozzano
                            • Aquilano
                          • Umbrian (Umbro)
                            • Southeastern
                            • Northern
                            • Northwestern and Viterbese
                          • Central Marchigiano (Marchigiano Proper)
                            • Maceratese
                            • Anconitan
                        • Southern Italian
                        • Old Tuscan
                          • Tuscan (Toscano)
                            • Eastern
                            • Western
                              • Lucchese
                              • Pisano
                              • Livornese
                                • Judeo-Livornese (Bagitto) (extinct)
                              • Grossetano
                              • Elbano (Elba Island)
                          • Corsican (Corsu / Lingua Corsa)
                            • Northern Corsican
                            • Central Corsican
                            • Southern Corsican
                            • Capraiese (extinct)
                            • Castellanese
                            • Gallurese (Gadduresu)
                            • Sassarese (Sassaresu / Turritanu)
                        • Venetian (Romance Venetian) (Vèneto / Łéngoa Vèneta)
                          • Lagoon Venetian
                          • Central Venetian
                            • Paduan (extinct)
                          • Western Venetian
                          • Trentine Venetian
                          • Alpine Venetian
                          • Eastern Venetian
                            • Trevigiano
                            • Feltrino
                            • Colonial Venetian (Eastern Adriatic Venetian)
                              • Bisiaco-Gradese-Maranese Venetian (Coastal Friuli)
                              • Triestine
                              • Fiuman
                              • Istro-Dalmatian Venetian
                                • Istrian Venetian
                                • Dalmatian Venetian
                              • Corfiot Venetian
                          • Venetian diaspora
                            • Pontine Marshes Venetian (in Southeastern Lazio)
                            • Talian (Brazilian Venetian)
                          • Judeo-Venetian Italkian (Giudeo-Veneziano) (extinct)
                        • Judeo-Italian / Italkian (ג'יודו-איטאליאנו – Giudeo-Italiano / איטלקית – Italqit) (La'az - לעז)
                        • Illyro-Roman / Dalmatian (Transitional Western-Eastern Romance)
                          • Istriot
                          • Dalmatian (Romance Dalmatian) (dalmato, langa dalmata) (extinct)
                            • Vegliote
                            • Ragusan
                      • Western Romance languages (dialect continuum)
                        • Gallo-Romance languages (dialect continuum)
                        • Southern Gallo-Romance (Occitano-Romance)
                        • Iberian Romance languages / Hispano-Romance (dialect continuum)[37]
                          • Andalusi Romance (extinct) (dialect continuum)[38]
                            • Navarro-Aragonese / Old Aragonese (extinct)
                              • Old Riojan (extinct)
                              • Navarrese Romance (extinct)
                              • East Old Aragonese
                                • Ebro Valley Aragonese (extinct)
                                • Community of Villages Aragonese (extinct)
                                • Valencian Aragonese (extinct)
                                • Medieval High Aragonese / Pyrenean Aragonese
                                  • Aragonese (Aragonés / Luenga Aragonesa / Fabla Aragonesa)
                                    • Western Aragonese
                                      • Aisinian
                                      • Ansotano
                                      • Aragüés
                                      • Hecho
                                    • Central Aragonese
                                      • Bergotés
                                      • Belsetano
                                    • Eastern Aragonese
                                      • Ribagorçan
                                        • Benasquese
                                    • Southern Aragonese
                                      • Navalese
                                • Judaeo-Aragonese (Chodigo-Aragonés) (Aragonit Yehudit / אראגונית יהודית) (extinct)
                          • Western Iberian Romance / Western Hispano-Romance (dialect continuum)
                            • Castilian languages (dialect continuum)
                            • Old Leonese (extinct)
                              • Astur-Leonese (Asturllionés / Astur-Llionés / Llengua Astur-Llionesa)
                                • Eastern Astur-Leonese (Cantabrian-Extremaduran)
                                  • Cantabrian (Romance Cantabrian) (Cántabru / Montañés)
                                    • Western Cantabrian
                                    • Central Cantabrian
                                      • Pasiego (Pasiegu)
                                      • Montañés
                                    • Eastern Cantabrian
                                  • Old Extremaduran / Old Extremaduran Leonese (extinct)
                                    • High Old Extremaduran (extinct)
                                      • Extremaduran (Northern Extremaduran) (Estremeñu / Artu Estremeñu)
                                        • Serrano / Habla de la Sierra de Francia
                                        • Bejarano (Béjar dialect)
                                        • Palra d'El Rebollal
                                    • Low Old Extremaduran (Bahu Estremeñu) (extinct)
                                      • Central Old Extremaduran (extinct)
                                      • Southern Old Extremaduran (extinct)
                                • Western Astur-Leonese (Astur-Leonese Proper)
                                  • Asturian (Asturianu) and Leonese (Llionés) / Asturleonese (Asturllionés) (the division between Asturian and Leonese is extra-linguistic, dialectal varieties mainly form an east to west division pattern with north to south strips, tilted towards southwest in eastern and central varieties, and not between Asturias and Leon, only after that there is a distinction between asturian and leonese varieties)
                                    • Eastern Asturian / Eastern Asturian-Leonese Proper
                                      • Asturian
                                        • Llanes dialect
                                      • Leonese
                                        • Riberan / Riveran / Arribenian / Riberenian
                                    • Central Asturian / Central Asturian-Leonese Proper
                                      • Asturian
                                        • Gijon (Xixón) dialect
                                        • Oviedo (Uviéu) dialect
                                      • Leonese
                                        • Leonese (Leon city dialect) (extinct)
                                        • Sayaguese
                                    • Western Asturian / Western Asturian-Leonese Proper
                                      • Eastern Western Asturian-Leonese
                                        • Asturian
                                          • Pixueto (Cudillero / Cuideiru) dialect
                                        • Leonese
                                          • Omañese / Oumañese
                                          • Cepedanu
                                          • Maragato
                                          • Alistanu
                                      • Western Western Asturian-Leonese
                                        • Asturian
                                          • Luarca dialect
                                        • Leonese
                                          • Paḷḷuezu / Patsuezo / Pachuezo
                                          • Berzian-Cabreirese
                                          • Sanabrian / Senabrian (Senabrès) (Seabra)
                                            • Riudeonore-Guadramil-Deilon-Quintanilha Leonese
                                          • Mirandese (Mirandés / Lhengua Mirandesa)
                                            • Central Mirandese
                                            • Raiano Mirandese
                                            • Sendinese Mirandese
                            • Galician–Portuguese (Old Galician–Old Portuguese) (extinct)
                              • Galician (Galego / Lingua Galega)
                                • Eastern Galician
                                  • Eonavian (Galician–Asturian)
                                  • Central Western
                                  • Portelas (Northwest Zamora Galician)
                                • Central Galician
                                  • Mindoniensis
                                  • Central Transitional
                                  • Lucu-Auriensis (Lugo-Ourense)
                                  • Eastern Transitional
                                • Western Galician
                                  • Bergantiños
                                  • Finisterra
                                  • Pontevedra
                              • Fala
                              • Portuguese (Português / Língua Portuguesa)
                                • European Portuguese / Portugal's Portuguese
                                  • Northern dialects
                                    • Lower-Minhoto-Durian - High-Beiran (Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense - Alto-Beirão)
                                      • Lower Minhoto-Durian (Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense) (Nortenho) (Coastal Northern)
                                      • High Beiran - Transmontan Beiran (Alto-Beirão - Beirão Transmontano) (Northern - Northeastern Beiran)
                                        • High-Beiran (Alto-Beirão)
                                        • Transmontan Beiran (Beirão Transmontano)
                                    • High-Minhoto-Transmontan (Alto Minhoto-Transmontano) (Inland Northern)
                                      • High-Minhoto (Alto-Minhoto)
                                      • Transmontan (Transmontano)
                                  • Central - Southern dialects
                                    • Coastal Central (Estremenho)
                                      • Standard European Portuguese / Standard Portugal's Portuguese
                                      • Northern Estremenho
                                      • Southern Estremenho
                                    • Inland Central - Southern
                                      • Inland Central / Interior Central
                                        • Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan
                                          • Northern Lower-Beiran (Baixo-Beirão do Norte)
                                          • Southern Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan (Baixo-Beirão do Sul - Alto-Alentejano do Norte)
                                      • Southern dialects
                                        • Ribatejan (Ribatejano)
                                        • Southern Coastal Estremenho (Estremenho Costeiro do Sul)
                                        • Setúbal Peninsula (Setubalense)
                                        • Alentejan (Alentejano)
                                          • Oliventine (Oliventino)
                                        • Algarvian (Algarvio)
                                          • Leeward Algarvian (Algarvio do Sotavento) (Eastern Algarvian)
                                          • Windward Algarvian (Algarvio do Barlavento) (Western Algarvian)
                                  • Insular Portuguese
                                    • Madeiran (Madeirense)
                                      • Portosantese (Portosantense)
                                      • Madeiran (Madeirense)
                                    • Azorean (Açoriano)
                                      • Mariense
                                      • Micaelense
                                      • Terceirense
                                      • Graciosense
                                      • Jorgense
                                      • Picoense
                                      • Faialense
                                      • Florentino
                                      • Corvino
                                • Latin American Portuguese
                                  • Brazilian Portuguese
                                    • Northern dialects
                                      • Amazofonia / Nortista
                                        • Metropolitan (Belém do Pará, Manáus, Porto Velho)
                                        • Bragantinense
                                        • Camataense
                                        • Amapaense
                                        • Roraimese
                                        • Acreanese
                                      • Broad Northeastern
                                        • Narrow Northeasern
                                        • North Coast Northeastern
                                          • Cearense
                                            • Fortaleza
                                          • North Piauí
                                          • North Maranhense
                                      • Bahian (Baiano)
                                        • Soteropolitano (Salvador)
                                        • Coastal (Costeiro)
                                        • Inland (Interior)
                                          • Catingueiro
                                          • Geraizeiro / Fala dos Gerais (Fala das Minas dos Matos Gerais)
                                    • Southern dialects
                                      • Broad Fluminense
                                        • Fluminense
                                          • Rio de Janeiro (Carioca)
                                        • Espiritosantense (Capixaba)
                                      • Mineiro / Uplander (Montanhês)
                                      • Broad Sulista
                                        • Broad Paulista (Caipira)
                                          • Paulistano
                                            • Standard Brazilian Portuguese
                                          • Vale do Paraíba
                                          • Southern Paulista
                                          • Médio Tietê
                                          • Inland Paulista
                                          • Mineiro Triangle
                                          • Sertanejo
                                            • Goiás
                                            • Baixada Cuiabana
                                            • Campo Grande
                                            • Pantanal
                                          • Brasiliense
                                          • Serra Amazônica
                                        • Florianopolitan (Manezês)
                                        • Narrow Sulista
                                        • Gaúcho
                                          • Portoalegrense
                                  • Uruguayan Portuguese / Fronteiriço
                                • African Portuguese
                                • Asian Portuguese
                                • Judaeo-Portuguese (Judeu-Português) (extinct)
                                • Mixed Portuguese-Spanish-Asturo-Leonese
                                  • Barranquenho
                                • Portuguese-based Cant (Portuguese-based Cryptolect)
                                  • Minderico
                    • Eastern Romance languages
                      • Proto-Romanian / Common Romanian (dialect continuum) (extinct)
                        • South
                          • Aromanian (Rrãmãneshti / Armãneashti / Armãneshce / Limba Rrãmãniascã / Limba Armãneascã / Limba Armãneshce)
                            • Northern Aromanian
                            • Southern Aromanian
                          • Megleno-Romanian (Vlăhește)
                        • North
                          • Romanian (Limba Română / Românește)
                            • Old Romanian (Daco-Romanian)
                              • Modern Romanian
                                • Romanian dialects (Graiuri)
                                  • Northern Romanian
                                    • Banatian (Bănățean)
                                    • Crișanian
                                    • Maramureșian (Maramureșean)
                                    • Bukovinian Romanian dialect
                                    • Transylvanian varieties of Romanian (Ardelenesc)
                                    • Moldavian (Moldovenesc)
                                  • Southern Romanian
                                    • Oltenian (Oltenesc)
                                    • Muntenian (Muntenesc) (Wallachian)
                          • Istro-Romanian (Rumârește, Vlășește)
                  • Southern Romance

Celtic languages

Diachronic distribution of Celtic language speakers:
  core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BCE
  maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BCE
  Lusitanian and Vettonian area of Iberian Peninsula where Celtic presence is uncertain, Para-Celtic?
  the six Celtic nations which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the Early Modern period
  areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today
A map of the modern distribution of the Celtic languages. Red: Welsh; Purple: Cornish; Black: Breton; Green: Irish; Blue: Scottish Gaelic: Yellow: Manx. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.

Germanic languages

Germanic languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Germanic languages are spoken. Dark Red: First language; Red: Official or Co-Official language, Pink: Spoken by a significant minority as second language.

Balto-Slavic languages

Area of Balto-Slavic dialect continuum with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age . Red dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.
Political map of Europe with countries where a Slavic language is a national language marked in shades of green and where a Baltic language is a national language marked in light orange. Wood green represents East Slavic languages, pale green represents West Slavic languages, and sea green represents South Slavic languages. Contemporary Baltic languages are all from the same group: Eastern Baltic
Baltic languages (extinct languages shown in stripes).
Slavic languages in Europe . Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.
Russian Language – Map of all the areas where the Russian language is the language spoken by the majority of the population. Russian is the biggest Slavic language both in number of first language speakers and in geographical area where the language is spoken .

Baltic languages

  • Proto-Baltic (extinct)
    • Dnieper-Oka (extinct)
      • Golyad / East Galindian (extinct)
    • Eastern Baltic
      • Old Latvian (Old Latgalian) (extinct)
        • Latvian / Broad Latvian
          • Latvian dialects
            • Latgalian / High Latgalian / High Latvian (Highland Latvian)
              • Standard Latgalian
              • Latgalian dialects
                • Latgalian Proper / Non-Selonic
                • Selonic
            • Latvian (Lowland Latvian)
              • Middle / Central
                • Standard Latvian
                • Middle / Central Proper / Vidzeme / Low Latgalian
                • Semigallic
                • Curonic / Latvian Curonian
                  • Kursenieki / Curonian Isthmus Latvian / New Curonian
              • Livonic Latvian / Tamian
                • Vidzeme Livonic / Central Region Livonic
                • Courland / North Courland Livonic / Tāmnieku
      • Selonian (extinct)
      • Semigallian (extinct)
      • Old Lithuanian (extinct)
        • Lithuanian / Broad Lithuanian
          • Lithuanian dialects
            • Aukštaitian (Highland Lithuanian)
              • Standard Lithuanian
              • Highland Lithuanian dialects
                • Eastern
                • Western
                  • Suvalkian / Sudovic Aukštaitian
                • Southern / Dzūkian
            • Samogitian (Lowland Lithuanian)
              • Southern
              • Northern / Curonic Samogitian
              • Western
    • Western Baltic

Slavic languages

  • Proto-Slavic (extinct)
    • East Slavic languages
      • Old East Slavic / Common East Slavic / Old Russian (broad sense of East Slavic) (extinct)
        • Southern Old East Slavic (all East Slavic except Old Novgorodian)
          • Ruthenian / Southwestern-Southern-Central Old East Slavic (extinct)
            • Southwestern Old East Slavic
              • Rusyn
                • Carpathian Rusyn
                  • Hutsul / Eastern Carpathian
                  • Boyko / North Carpathian
                  • Transcarpathian
                  • Lemko / West Carpathian
                • Pannonian Rusyn / Bačka Rusyn (East Slavic influenced by Slovak or a West Slavic language closer to Slovak)
            • Southern Old East Slavic
              • Ukrainian
                • Ukrainian dialects
                  • Southwestern Ukrainian (Western Southern Ukrainian)
                    • Volhynian-Podilian
                      • Volhynian
                      • Podolian
                    • Galician–Bukovinian
                      • Dniestrian / Upper Dniestrian / Opilia
                      • Upper Sannian
                      • Pokuttia–Bukovina
                      • Diaspora dialect
                  • Southeastern Ukrainian (Eastern Southern Ukrainian)
                    • Middle Dnieprian
                    • Slobozhan
                    • Steppe
                  • Northern Ukrainian / Polesian / Polisian
            • Central Old East Slavic
          • Northeastern Old East Slavic
            • Russian
              • Russian dialects
                • Spoken mainly by Ethnic Russians
                  • Southern Russian
                    • Western / Russian-Belarusian
                    • Upper Dnieperian
                    • Upper Desnian
                    • Kursk-Orel / Orlovsky
                    • Tulian
                    • Yeletsian
                    • Oskolian
                    • Ryazanian
                    • Southern Russian Diaspora
                      • Doukhobor
                  • Central-Northern
                    • Central Russian / Middle Russian
                      • West Central
                        • Pskovian
                        • Lake Peipus
                        • Gdovian
                        • Novgorodian
                        • Torzhokian
                        • Saint-Petersburgish
                          • Standard Russian (Saint-Petersburg Norm)
                      • East Central
                        • Moscow
                          • Standard Russian (Moscow Norm)
                        • Vladimirian-Volgan / Tverian-Vladimirian-Volgan
                        • Chukhlomian (dialect island/enclave)
                        • Astrakhan
                    • Northern Russian
                      • Ladogan-Tikhvinian
                      • Belozeran-Bezhetsian
                      • Onegan
                      • Lachian
                      • Kostromian
                      • Vologdan
                      • Pomor
                      • Siberian
                        • Alaskan
                  • Russian Diaspora dialects (see Geographical distribution of Russian speakers)
                    • Neighbouring countries of Russia (spoken by ethnic Russians)
                    • Eastern Europe
                      • Transnistrian Russian
                    • North America
                • Spoken by Non-Ethnic Russians (overlapping with native languages)
                  • In Eastern Europe
                    • Ukrainian (spoken by Ukrainians, not ethnic Russians)
                    • Belarusian (spoken by Belarusians, not ethnic Russians)
                    • Moldovan Russian (spoken by Moldovans, not ethnic Russians)
                  • In Russia
                    • European Russia
                      • Mordvin Russian
                      • Mari Russian
                      • Udmurt Russian
                      • Komi Russian
                      • Karelian Russian
                      • Chuvash Russian
                      • Tatar Russian
                      • Bashkir Russian
                    • Siberia / Asian Russia
                      • Buryat Russian
                      • Chukchi Russian
                      • Tuvan Russian
                    • Russian Caucasus
                      • Ossetian Russian
                      • Circassian Russian
                      • Abkhaz Russian
                      • Chechen Russian
                      • Dagestani
                  • In Southwest Asia / Middle East
                  • In Central Asia
                    • Kazakhstani Russian
                    • Kyrgyzstani Russian
                    • Uzbekistani Russian
                    • Turkmenistani Russian
                    • Tajikistani Russian
        • Northern / Northwestern Old East Slavic (extinct)
      • Mixed East Slavic languages
        • Mixed Russian-Belarusian-Ukrainian
          • Goryun / Horyun
        • Mixed Russian-Ukrainian
    • West Slavic languages
      • Lechitic
        • East Lechitic
          • Old Polish (extinct)
            • Middle Polish (extinct)
              • Polish
                • Greater Polish
                  • Bory Tucholskie
                  • Chełmno-Dobrzyń
                  • Central Greater Poland
                  • Eastern Greater Poland
                  • Kociewie
                  • Krajna
                  • Kujawy
                  • Northern Greater Poland
                  • Southern Greater Poland
                  • Western Greater Poland
                • Lesser Polish
                  • Biecz
                  • Kielce
                  • Eastern Kraków
                  • Eastern Lublin
                  • Lasovia
                  • Limanowa
                  • Łęczyca
                  • Masovian Borderland
                  • Podegrodzie
                  • Przemyśl
                  • Sieradz
                  • Western Kraków
                  • Western Lublin
                  • Goral
                    • Babia Góra
                    • Bukovinian
                    • Kliszczak
                    • Kysuce
                    • Liptov
                    • Łącko
                    • Ochotnica
                    • Orawa
                    • Pieniny
                    • Piwniczna
                    • Podhale
                    • Spisz
                    • Zagórze
                    • Żywiec
                • Southern Borderlands dialect
                • Masovian / Mazovian
                  • Białystok
                  • Far Masovian
                  • Kurpie
                  • Łowicz
                  • Lubawa
                  • Masurian
                  • Near Masovian
                  • Ostróda
                  • Podlachian
                  • Suwałki
                  • Warmian
                  • Warsaw
                • Northern Borderlands dialect
                • New Mixed Dialects
          • Silesian / Upper Silesian / Slavic Silesian
        • Middle Lechitic
        • West Lechitic (extinct)
          • Old Polabian
            • Rani
            • Marcho-Magdeburgian
              • Polabian / Drevanian / Lüneburg Wendish (extinct)
      • Czech-Slovak
      • Sorbian
    • South Slavic languages
      • Western South Slavic
        • Old Slovene / Alpine Slovene (=Slavic) / Carantanian
          • Slovene
            • Slovene dialects (dialect groups)
              • Southeastern
                • Eastern
                • Southern
                  • Southern Styrian
                  • Upper Carniolan
                  • Eastern Rovte
                  • Lower Carniolan
                    • Southeastern Littoral
              • Northwestern
                • Northern
                • Western
                  • Soča-Idrija
                    • Western Rovte
                  • Venetian-Karst
                    • Northwestern Littoral
        • Kajkavian-Chakavian-Shtokavian / Central South Slavic
          • Kajkavian
            • Gora
            • Križevci–Podravina
            • Lower Sutla
            • Prigorje
            • Turopolje–Posavina
            • Zagor–Međimurje
          • Chakavian
            • Central Chakavian / Middle Chakavian
            • Southern Chakavian
            • Southeastern Chakavian
            • Southwestern Istrian
            • Northern Chakavian
            • Buzet
          • Shtokavian
            • Western Shtokavian
              • Old Western Shtokavian
                • Slavonian (Archaic Šćakavian)
                  • Šokac
                • Eastern Bosnian (Jekavian-Šćakavian)
              • New Western Shtokavian
                • Bosnian–Dalmatian (Western Ikavian / Younger Ikavian)
                  • Bosnian-West Herzegovinian
                  • Dalmatian
                    • Slavomolisano
                  • Bunjevac
              • New Southern Shtokavian
            • Eastern Shtokavian
              • Old Eastern Shtokavian
                • Smederevo–Vršac
                • Kosovo–Resava / Resava-North Kosovo (Older Ekavian)
                • Zeta–Raška / Zeta-South Sandžak (Đekavian-Ijekavian)
              • New Eastern Shtokavian
        • Torlakian
          • Serbian Torlakian
            • Timok-Prizren / South Morava - South Kosovo
              • Timok-Lužnica
              • Svrljig-Zaplanje
              • South Morava-Prizren
          • Transitional Bulgarian dialects (closer to Torlakian)
            • Belogradchik dialect
            • Breznik dialect
            • Tran dialect
          • Northern Macedonian (closer to Torlakian)
            • Kriva Palanka dialect
            • Kumanovo dialect
            • Skopska Crna Gora dialect
            • Tetovo dialect
          • Gora dialect (Torlakian ou Slavic Macedonian)
          • Romanian Torlakian
            • Krashovani (ethnically Croatian but closer to Torlakian in dialect)
      • Eastern South Slavic
        • Old Slavonic / Old Church Slavonic (not exclusively ecclesiastical) / Old East South Slavic (extinct)
          • Church Slavonic Proper
          • Modern East South Slavic (Slavic Bulgarian-Slavic Macedonian)
            • Bulgarian (Slavic Bulgarian)
              • Western Bulgarian
                • Northwestern
                  • Vidin-Lom dialect
                  • Byala Slatina-Pleven dialect
                • Southwestern
                  • Vratsa dialect
                  • Botevgrad dialect
                  • Ihtiman dialect
                  • Samokov dialect
                  • Elin Pelin dialect
                  • Sofia dialect
                  • Dupnitsa dialect
                  • Kyustendil dialect
              • Eastern Bulgarian
                • Moesian
                  • Shumen dialect
                • Balkan
                  • Central Balkan dialect
                  • Kotel-Elena-Dryanovo dialect
                  • Panagyurishte dialect
                  • Pirdop dialect
                  • Teteven dialect
                  • Erkech dialect
                  • Subbalkan dialect
                • Rup / Southeastern Bulgarian
                  • "True" Rup
                    • Strandzha dialect
                    • Thracian dialect
                    • Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect
                  • Babyak dialect
                  • Razlog dialect
                  • Zlatograd dialect
                  • Rhodopean
              • Macedonian (Slavic Macedonian)
                • Standard Macedonian
                  • Spoken Macedonian
                • Eastern-Southern
                  • Eastern
                    • Maleševo-Pirin dialect
                    • Štip-Kočani dialect
                    • Strumica dialect
                  • Southern
                    • Southeastern
                      • Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect
                      • Solun-Voden dialect
                    • Southwestern
                • Western
                  • Central
                    • Skopje-Veles dialect
                    • Kičevo-Poreče dialect
                    • Prilep-Bitola dialect
                  • Peripheral dialects
                    • Gostivar dialect
                    • Galičnik dialect
                    • Reka dialect
                    • Debar dialect
                    • Ohrid dialect
                    • Struga dialect
                    • Upper Prespa dialect
                    • Lower Prespa dialect
                    • Vevčani-Radožda dialect

Indo-Iranian languages

Geographic distribution of modern Indo-Iranian languages. Blue, dark purple and green colour shades: Iranic languages. Dark pink: Nuristani languages. Red, light purple and orange colour shades: Indo-Aryan languages. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.

Iranian languages

Map of Attested and Hypothetical Old Indo-Iranian Dialects. Indo-Iranian languages descend from the language spoken by the Sintashta Culture people that lived in the plains beyond the southeast Ural Mountains, between the upper Ural and Tobol rivers basins. Old Iranian languages, were spoken in a large Eurasian landmass area that included most of south Eastern Europe, south west Siberia, Central Asia, including parts of western China, and the Iranian Plateau. The Scythian languages, that belonged to the Northern Eastern Iranian languages subgroup, were the ones with the biggest geographical distribution, they were spoken in most of the steppe and desert areas of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, matching most of the western half of the Eurasian steppe, which corresponds to modern southern European Russia and south Russian west Siberia and parts of southern central Siberia, modern southern Ukraine, an enclave in the east Pannonian Basin, in modern Hungary, all of modern Kazakhstan, parts of modern Xinjiang, in Western China, modern Kyrgyzstan, and parts of modern Uzbekistan and modern Turkmenistan.[48] Later Scythian languages were also present in northern India by migration of part of the ancient Iranian peoples forming the Indo-Scythians. This was the geographical distribution until the first centuries A.D., after that time, Turkic migration and conquests along with Turkification, made many ancient Iranian languages go extinct.
Distribution of modern Iranian Languages

Nuristani languages

Nuristan Province in Afghanistan, where most speakers live.
Nuristani languages.
  • Proto-Nuristani (extinct) [57][58]
    • Katë / Kati / Kâmkata-vari
      • Western Katë
      • Northeastern Katë
        • Shekhani
      • Southeastern Katë
        • Kamviri
        • Mumviri
    • Prasun / Vâsi-vari
    • Ashkun / Saňu-viri
    • Nuristani Kalasha / Kalasha-alâ
    • Tregami
    • Zemiaki

Indo-Aryan languages

Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. Romani, Domari, Kholosi and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map. Colours indicate the branches – yellow is Eastern, purple is Dardic, blue is Northwestern, red is Southern, green is Western, brown is Northern and orange is Central. Data is from "The Indo Aryan Languages" as well as census data and previous linguistic maps.
Dardic
  Pashai
  Chitrali
  Shina
  Kohistani
  Kashmiri
Northwestern
  Punjabi
  Sindhi
Western
  Rajasthani
  Gujarati
  Bhili
  Khandeshi
Northern
  Himachali-Dogri
  Garhwali-Kumaoni
  Nepali
Central
  Western Hindi
  Eastern Hindi
Eastern
  Bihari
  Bengali-Assamese
  Odia
  Halbi
Southern
  Marathi-Konkani
  Sinhala-Maldivian
Distribution of major Indo-Aryan languages. Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
  Dardic
  Northwestern
  Northern
  Western
  Central
  Eastern
  Southern
Romani languages and dialects in Europe. Romani languages are part of the Indo-Aryan branch of Indo-European languages but are spoken out of the Indian Subcontinent. They are related to the Domari languages and are scattered and minority languages in all regions, overlapping with other peoples and their languages in Europe. The Domari and Romani languages are spoken in a vast geographical area from Southwest Asia to Europe and North Africa but are minoritary and scattered in all the regions in part because Domari and Romani speakers, the Doma and the Roma, were traditionally nomadic peoples.

Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear

Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families (?)

See also

  • List of Pidgins, Creoles, Mixed languages and Cants based on Indo-European languages
  • Indo-Hittite
  • Paleo-Balkan
  • Daco-Thracian
  • Graeco-Armenian
  • Graeco-Aryan
  • Graeco-Phrygian
  • Thraco-Illyrian
  • Italo-Celtic

Notes

  1. ^ The inclusion of Wakhi among the Pamir languages is debated. Some scholars place it within the Pamir branch, others relate it more closely to Saka.[56]

References

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  28. ^ Petros Karatsareas. (2013): Understanding diachronic change in Cappadocian Greek: The dialectological perspective. Journal of Historical Linguistics 3:2 (2013), 192–229. doi 10.1075/jhl.3.2.02kar
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  32. ^ Adelina ÇERPJA and Anila ÇEPANI, "Albanian dialect classifications" in Dialectologia. Special issue, 11 (2023), 51-87. ISSN: 2013-2247
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  34. ^ Bereznay, András (2011). Erdély történetének atlasza [Atlas of the History of Transylvania] (in Hungarian). Méry Ratio. p. 63. ISBN 978-80-89286-45-4.
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  40. ^ "East Germanic languages | History, Characteristics & Dialects | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2023-08-18. Retrieved 2023-08-18.
  41. ^ "The medieval 'New England': A forgotten Anglo-Saxon colony on the north-eastern Black Sea coast" https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html Archived 2023-08-18 at the Wayback Machine
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  43. ^ C. A. M. Noble: Modern German Dialects. Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131
  44. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, "Holland, n. 1," etymology.
  45. ^ Hendricks, Frank . "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".[1] Archived 2022-10-23 at the Wayback Machine Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery. 3 (2): 6–39. doi:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38. ISSN 2221-4216. S2CID 197552885.
  46. ^ Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal: De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank:
    Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, entry VlamingI Archived 2023-10-05 at the Wayback Machine;
    cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek, entry flāmink Archived 2023-10-05 at the Wayback Machine: "Morfologie: afleiding, basiswoord : flāma 'overstroomd gebied'; suffix: ink 'vormt afstammingsnamen'"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek, entry Vlaendren Archived 2023-10-05 at the Wayback Machine: "Etymologie: Dat.pl. van flandr- 'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix -dr-.".
    Cognate to Middle English flēm 'current of a stream': Middle English Compendium → Middle English Dictionary : flēm n.(2) Archived 2023-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
  47. ^ Christoph, Walther; Lasch, Agathe; Kuhn, Hans; Pretzel, Ulrich; Scheel, Käthe; Meier, Jürgen; Möhn, Dieter (1985–2006), Hamburgisches Wörterbuch (2 ed.), Neumünster: K. Wachholtz, OCLC 182559541
  48. ^ Simpson, St John (2017). "The Scythians. Discovering the Nomad-Warriors of Siberia". Current World Archaeology. 84: 16–21. "nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages..."
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  50. ^ "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
  51. ^ "The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the Rigveda, and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Witzel, 1995)", quoted in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Archived 2023-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
  52. ^ "Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 2003-04, with further references)." in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Archived 2023-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
  53. ^ The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 1995; Witzel, 2000). We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran (the change of proto-Iranian *-āḭā/ă- > *-ayā/ă- and *ǰīwa- > *ǰuwa- "live," for instance, is typical of Sogdian, Khotanese, Pashto, etc. in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Archived 2023-09-21 at the Wayback Machine).
  54. ^ It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya (1983), "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.
  55. ^ Morgenstierne, Georg (1974). Etymological Vocabulary of the Shughni Group. Oslo: Norsk Videnskaps-Akademi. p. 34. The Darwozi dialect of Tajik preserves words such as fraun kardan ("to pour water on") and frakondan ("to wash, rinse"), which are probably borrowed from the Shughni group (ŠGr), cf. Shughni firêwtow ("to wash, rinse").
  56. ^ Endangered Language Alliance. "Wakhi". Endangered Language Alliance. Retrieved 2025-09-08. Wakhi is usually classified as a Pamir language ... but its relationship to the Pamiri group has been questioned by more recent work.
  57. ^ See also: Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, 1981, p 278, These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119–20, K. S. Dardi etc.
  58. ^ Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
  59. ^ Burrow, T. (1936). "The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. 8 (2/3): 419–435. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141060. JSTOR 608051. S2CID 170991822.
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