尼陀

尼陀
犹太律法來源
塔納赫	利未记 15:19–30 利未记 18:19 利未记 20:18
巴比倫塔木德	尼陀
米示內托拉	Kedushah (Holiness): Issurei Biah (forbidden sexual relations): 4–11
Shulchan Aruch	Yoreh De'ah 183–202

尼陀（希伯來語：נִדָּה，羅馬化：niddah）在传统犹太教中是指一位经历子宫出血（最常见于月经期间）的女性，或月经已来但尚未完成浸禮相关的沐浴仪式要求的女性。

在利未记中，与尼陀发生性关系被妥拉所禁止^[1]。这项禁令一直被传统犹太律法和撒玛利亚人所保留着。但改革派犹太教和其他倾向自由主义教派的信徒则大多废除了这项禁令^[2]^[3]。

在拉比犹太教中，针对尼陀的额外严规和禁令随着时间的推移不断积累，使其定义范围在各个方面都不断扩大，这包括：禁令的持续时间（阿什肯纳兹派至少12天，塞法迪派至少 11 天）；性行为禁令范围的扩大：禁止同床共枕、禁止任何身体接触^[4]，甚至禁止将物品递给配偶；并有与之对应的详细净礼仪式^[2]^[5]^[6]。

自19世纪末以来，受德国现代正统派的影响，有关“尼陀”的律法也被称为“Taharat haMishpacha”（希伯來語：(טָהֳרַת הַמִּשְׁפָּחָה‬，羅馬化：taharat hamishpacha，直译：「家庭的洁净」）。这是一种委婉的護教说法，旨在淡化女性的“汙穢”（这一概念受到改革运动的批评），并通过警告民众“尼陀”可能会影响后代的纯洁来劝诫民众^[2]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]。

拓展阅读

Kahana, K. Daughter of Israel - Laws of Family Purity (טהרת בת ישראל : הלכות נדה). 由Leonard Oschry翻译 3. Jerusalem - New York: Feldheim. 1970. OCLC 21284290 （英语）.

参考文献

^ Leviticus 15:19-30, 18:19, 20:18
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Female Purity (Niddah) | Jewish Women's Archive. jwa.org. [2020-02-19].
^ Why Some Jewish Women Go to the Mikveh Each Month. My Jewish Learning. [2020-02-19] （美国英语）.
^ This prohibition may be Biblical.
^ Werczberger, R.; Guzmen-Carmeli, S. Judaim. Yaden, David Bryce; Newberg, Andrew B.; Zhao, Yukun; Peng, Kaiping (编). Rituals and Practices in World Religions: Cross-cultural Scholarship to Inform Research and Clinical Contexts. Springer. 2020. ISBN 9783030279530. women and menstruation. Later on, the rabbis increased the period of sexual separation between a menstruating wife and her husband from 7 days total to 7 "clean days" and a minimum of 11 days for Sephardim and 12 days for Ashkenazim. The Biblical law also requires that following that period, the woman would immerse herself in the mikveh. In general, the immersion in the miqveh must take place after dark. The woman must undress completely and clean herself before entering. The immersion must be witnessed by a Jewish woman (balanit) whose role is to ensure that all body parts, including the hair, are submerged in the water. Some attendants offer to check the hands, feet, and back for possible barriers (chatzitzot) between the body and the water, such as nail polish. Upon immersing, the woman recites the designated blessing...
^ Liss. Patterns of intensification. Discourses of Purity in Transcultural Perspective (300–1600). BRILL. 2015: 272. ISBN 978-90-04-28975-8.
^ Marmon-Grumet, Naomi. The Transmission of Sexual Mores, Norms of Procreation, and Gender Expectations through Pre-Marital Counselling (Hadrakhat Hatanim/Kallot). Gross, Martine; Nizard, Sophie; Scioldo-Zurcher, Yann (编). Gender, Families and Transmission in the Contemporary Jewish Context. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2017: 40. ISBN 978-1-4438-9232-2. According to Marienberg (2003), the term "taharat hamishpaha", was most likely coined to hide the association of impurity and encourage thinking about the Talmudic notion that niddah can have consequences on the purity of offspring.
^ Wasserfall, Rahel. Women and Water: Menstruation in Jewish Life and Law. Brandeis University Press. 2015: 32–33. ISBN 978-1-61168-870-2. probably generated by the Neo-Orthodox movement as a response to the Reform rejection of some of the normative menstrual laws, particularly use of the miqveh. The Reform movement claimed that the law was instituted at a time when public bathing facilities were the norm, but was no longer valid with the advent of home bathtubs and greater concern for personal hygiene... The term family purity is euphemistic and somewhat misleading, since the topic is, in fact, ritual impurity.
^ Biale, David. Blood and Belief: The Circulation of a Symbol Between Jews and Christians. University of California Press. 2008: 175. ISBN 978-0-520-25798-6. for the modern Orthodox Jews of Germany, the phrase "family purity" (Reinheit des Familienlebens) came to designate the laws of menstruation. Whereas in Talmudic law, a menstruating woman conveyed a kind of technical impurity, in this new, bourgeois conception, the family as a whole was purified by avoidance of menstrual blood.
^ Stollman, Aviad. A Lifetime Companion to the Laws of Jewish Family Life, and: Man and Woman: Guidance for Newlyweds (review). Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues. 2006, 12 (1): 309–329. ISSN 1565-5288. According to Evyatar Marienberg, the term "Tahorat haMishpahah", itself is of German-Jewish origin, late in the nineteenth century, probably a translation of the expression "Reinheit des Familienlebens". The original expression was most likely coined as an attempt to suppress the obvious halakhic fact that a woman who menstruates is impure. Instead of discussing the impurity of the niddah, one is encouraged to think of the purity of the family. It is also probable that the term came into use to emphasize the talmudic notion that not keeping the laws of niddah can have consequences on the purity of the offspring.
^ Fonrobert, Charlotte Elisheva. Purification: Purification in Judaism. Jones, Lindsay (编). Encyclopedia of Religion 11 2nd. Macmillan Reference USA. 2005. This term is technically a misnomer... It entered Jewish legal discourse in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, before it was popularized in the market of handbooks for married couples. One of its main functions is rooted in its polemical force, vis a vis liberal, non-observant Jews

书目

Badiḥi, Yiḥya. Yosef Ḥen , 编. Ḥen Ṭov. Bene Berak: Nosaḥ Teman. 2011: 164–170 (responsum no. 41–beth). OCLC 768305430 （希伯来语）.
Botterweck, G Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (编). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament 4. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans. 1999. OCLC 838020993.
Cohen, Alfred S. Halacha and Contemporary Society. KTAV Publishing House. 1984. ISBN 9780881250428 （英语）.
Ivry, Tsipy. Halachic infertility: rabbis, doctors, and the struggle over professional boundaries. Medical Anthropology. 2013, 32 (3): 208–226. PMID 23557006. S2CID 42649279. doi:10.1080/01459740.2012.674992.
Jacobs, F. Family Purity: A Guide to Marital Fulfillment. South Royalton, Vt.: Campus Living and Learning. 2000. ISBN 9780967348193. OCLC 48004626 （英语）.
Klein, George L.; Clendenen, Ray. Zechariah. New American Commentary. Nashville, Tenn.: B & H Pub. Group. 2008. ISBN 978-0-8054-9494-5. OCLC 767571192 （英语）.
Knohl, Elyashiv. Husband and wife (Jewish law) [Ish ṿe-ishah: zakhu shekhinah benehem] (איש ואשה - זכו שכינה ביניהם) 3. ʻEn Tsurim - Lod: Makhon Shiluvim. Yeshivat ha-Ḳibuts ha-dati. 2014. ISBN 9789659053902. OCLC 57630665 （希伯来语）. (first edition: 2003)
Maimonides. Sefer Mishneh Torah - HaYad Ha-Chazakah (Maimonides' Code of Jewish Law) 3. Jerusalem: Pe'er HaTorah. 1974. OCLC 122758200 （希伯来语）. , s.v. Hil. Issurei Bi'ah
Marienberg, Evyatar. Traditional Jewish Sexual Practices and Their Possible Impact on Jewish Fertility and Demography (PDF). Harvard Theological Review. 2013, 106 (3): 243–286. S2CID 162725107. doi:10.1017/S0017816013000114 （英语）.
Ratsabi, Yitshak (编). Shaʻarei Ṭaharah. Sefer Pisḳe Maharits (with the commentary Beʼerot Yitsḥaḳ) 3. Bnei Brak: Mekhon Peʻulat tsadiḳ. 1992. OCLC 30156998 （希伯来语）. , Hil. Niddah and Miqwa'ot
Reisner, Avram (2006), Observing Niddah in Our Day, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly
Sternbuch, M. The Complete Responsa and Practices of Moshe Sternbuch [Teshuvos VeHanhagos] (שו"ת תשובות והנהגות השלם ) 4. Jerusalem: Sternbuch. 1992–1997. OCLC 762395952 （希伯来语）.
Teherani, David. Sefer Ma'ayan Ṭaharah Hashalem (The Complete Book 'Wellspring of Purification') 2. Betar Ilit: Beit ha-hora'ah de-kahal kadosh sepharadim. 2019. OCLC 232673878 （希伯来语）.
Yisrael Meir ha-Kohen. Maʼamar ṭohorat ha-mishpaḥah. Sefer Geder ʻOlam. Israel: Sifrei Chofetz Chaim. 1971 （希伯来语）. (reprinted in 1974 by Eshkol publishers, Jerusalem OCLC 816512380)
Yosef, O. Responsa Yabia' Omer (Sefer Sheʼelot u-teshuvot Yabiʻa omer) 5. Jerusalem: Meʼor Yiśraʼel. 1986–1995. OCLC 503662216 （希伯来语）.
Yosef, O. Sefer Ṭohorat ha-bayit 1–3. Jerusalem: Meʼor Yiśraʼel. 2018. OCLC 20658501 （希伯来语）.

外部链接

Medieval Responsa Literature on Niddah: Perspectives of Notions of Tumah by Haviva Ner-David.
Yoatzot.org, "The Women's Health and Halacha Website"
Evyatar Marienberg, "Traditional Jewish Sexual Practices and Their Possible Impact on Jewish Fertility and Demography," Harvard Theological Review 106:3 (2013), pp. 243–286
Evyatar Marienberg, “What is Niddah? Menstruation in Judaism”, Polin: Museum of the History of Polish Jews, Warsaw, November 23, 2017

[1] Leviticus 15:19-30, 18:19, 20:18

[JWA-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Female Purity (Niddah) | Jewish Women's Archive. jwa.org. [2020-02-19].

[:1-3] Why Some Jewish Women Go to the Mikveh Each Month. My Jewish Learning. [2020-02-19] （美国英语）.

[4] This prohibition may be Biblical.

[Werczberger2020-5] Werczberger, R.; Guzmen-Carmeli, S. Judaim. Yaden, David Bryce; Newberg, Andrew B.; Zhao, Yukun; Peng, Kaiping (编). Rituals and Practices in World Religions: Cross-cultural Scholarship to Inform Research and Clinical Contexts. Springer. 2020. ISBN 9783030279530. women and menstruation. Later on, the rabbis increased the period of sexual separation between a menstruating wife and her husband from 7 days total to 7 "clean days" and a minimum of 11 days for Sephardim and 12 days for Ashkenazim. The Biblical law also requires that following that period, the woman would immerse herself in the mikveh. In general, the immersion in the miqveh must take place after dark. The woman must undress completely and clean herself before entering. The immersion must be witnessed by a Jewish woman (balanit) whose role is to ensure that all body parts, including the hair, are submerged in the water. Some attendants offer to check the hands, feet, and back for possible barriers (chatzitzot) between the body and the water, such as nail polish. Upon immersing, the woman recites the designated blessing...

[Liss2015-6] Liss. Patterns of intensification. Discourses of Purity in Transcultural Perspective (300–1600). BRILL. 2015: 272. ISBN 978-90-04-28975-8.

[Marmon2017-7] Marmon-Grumet, Naomi. The Transmission of Sexual Mores, Norms of Procreation, and Gender Expectations through Pre-Marital Counselling (Hadrakhat Hatanim/Kallot). Gross, Martine; Nizard, Sophie; Scioldo-Zurcher, Yann (编). Gender, Families and Transmission in the Contemporary Jewish Context. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2017: 40. ISBN 978-1-4438-9232-2. According to Marienberg (2003), the term "taharat hamishpaha", was most likely coined to hide the association of impurity and encourage thinking about the Talmudic notion that niddah can have consequences on the purity of offspring.

[Wasserfall2015-8] Wasserfall, Rahel. Women and Water: Menstruation in Jewish Life and Law. Brandeis University Press. 2015: 32–33. ISBN 978-1-61168-870-2. probably generated by the Neo-Orthodox movement as a response to the Reform rejection of some of the normative menstrual laws, particularly use of the miqveh. The Reform movement claimed that the law was instituted at a time when public bathing facilities were the norm, but was no longer valid with the advent of home bathtubs and greater concern for personal hygiene... The term family purity is euphemistic and somewhat misleading, since the topic is, in fact, ritual impurity.

[Biale2008-9] Biale, David. Blood and Belief: The Circulation of a Symbol Between Jews and Christians. University of California Press. 2008: 175. ISBN 978-0-520-25798-6. for the modern Orthodox Jews of Germany, the phrase "family purity" (Reinheit des Familienlebens) came to designate the laws of menstruation. Whereas in Talmudic law, a menstruating woman conveyed a kind of technical impurity, in this new, bourgeois conception, the family as a whole was purified by avoidance of menstrual blood.

[Stollman2006-10] Stollman, Aviad. A Lifetime Companion to the Laws of Jewish Family Life, and: Man and Woman: Guidance for Newlyweds (review). Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues. 2006, 12 (1): 309–329. ISSN 1565-5288. According to Evyatar Marienberg, the term "Tahorat haMishpahah", itself is of German-Jewish origin, late in the nineteenth century, probably a translation of the expression "Reinheit des Familienlebens". The original expression was most likely coined as an attempt to suppress the obvious halakhic fact that a woman who menstruates is impure. Instead of discussing the impurity of the niddah, one is encouraged to think of the purity of the family. It is also probable that the term came into use to emphasize the talmudic notion that not keeping the laws of niddah can have consequences on the purity of the offspring.

[Encyclopedia2005-11] Fonrobert, Charlotte Elisheva. Purification: Purification in Judaism. Jones, Lindsay (编). Encyclopedia of Religion 11 2nd. Macmillan Reference USA. 2005. This term is technically a misnomer... It entered Jewish legal discourse in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, before it was popularized in the market of handbooks for married couples. One of its main functions is rooted in its polemical force, vis a vis liberal, non-observant Jews

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犹太教中的女性
婚姻	婚姻观订婚姻约家睦头巾家婦礼式纯洁性礼式浸浴离婚锢女
犹太教主题分类共享資源維基專題

犹太净礼律法
犹太教系列条目的一部分之

污秽与洁净浸禮
洁净方法犹太教中的洗手浸禮池红母牛 Hefsek taharah Hagalah Tevilat Kelim