Warring States period

Warring States period
The seven Warring States of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi, Chu, Qin c. 260 BC
Traditional Chinese	戰國時代
Simplified Chinese	战国时代
Hanyu Pinyin	Zhànguó shídài
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhànguó shídài Bopomofo ㄓㄢˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄕˊ ㄉㄞˋ Wade–Giles Chan4-kuo2 Shih2-tai4 Tongyong Pinyin Jhànguó shíhdài Yale Romanization Jàn'gwó shŕdài IPA [ʈʂân.kwǒ ʂɻ̩̌.tâɪ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Jin'gwok sìhdoih Jyutping Zin3 gwok3 si4 doi6 IPA [tsin˧.kʷɔk̚˧ si˩.tɔj˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Chiàn-kok sî-tāi Tâi-lô Tsiàn-kok sî-tāi Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) *tar-s [C.q]ʷˤək tar-s [d]ə (~ [d]əʔ) lˤək-s

The Warring States period in Chinese history (c. 475 – 221 BC) comprises the final centuries of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynastic state in East Asian history. It saw developments in philosophy, commerce, agriculture, the arts, and society at large.

While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, Sima Qian's choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to the second half of the Eastern Zhou period, when the king of Zhou formally ruled as Chinese sovereign, but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The term "Warring States period" comes from the Record of the Warring States, a work of history compiled during the early Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).^[1]

In 450 BC there existed eight large states: Yen in the north and Yüe in the east, though these two did not play any decisive role in the Warring States period that went on almost without end for the next 225 years. The "Big Six" were Qi, Chu, Jin, and "The Three Qins," being Wei, Han and Zhao. There were also plenty of smaller principalities, all of which would become part of the larger states "as silkworms eat mulberry leaves."^[2]

In the beginning of the Warring States period, however, there were seven powerful states: Qin in the west, Qi in the east, Chu in the south, Yan in the north, and the Three Qins Wei, Han, and Zhao, located in the central region, with Han in the south, Wei in the middle, and Zhao in the north.^[3]

Historians differ as to the duration of the Warring States period. Periods theorised by some are:

• 481 BC (when the Lu chronicles end) - 403 BC (when Han, Wei, and Zhao states were recognized by the Zhou dynasty.
• 475 BC - 221 BC (the establishment of the Qin dynasty; this view is more popular.)^[4]

The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around the 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China.^[4]

The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.^[5]

The decline of the Zhou house began with the transfer of the capital from Shensi to the east in 770 BC. Nearly 150 years later, though, it would become weak, as seen in the formula used by the King to invest Duke Wen of Jin as Lord Protector (Pa):

Oh, my Uncle! Illustrious were the Kings Wen and Wu; they knew how to take care of their shining virtue, which rose with splendor on High (toward Heaven) and whose renown spread wide on earth. This is why the Soverign of On-High made the Mandate succeed in the case of the Kinds Wen and Wu. Have pity on me! Cause me to continue (the line of my ancestors); Me, the Unique Man and cause (me and my line) to be perpetually on the throne!^[6]

Almost exactly 25 years after the death of Confucius in 479 BC, the leaders of Wei, Han, and Zhao Clans attacked the ruler of Jin, defeated him near or on the site now called Taiyuan in 453, and split his domain among themselves. Earl Chih was decapitated, his family exterminated, and his skull was presented to Zhao Wuxu, who used it as a drinking cup. This is marked as the beginning of the Warring States period.^[7][8]

Around this time there existed a Son of Heaven; a member of the Zhou house, whose authority other than the borders of the minuscule enclave by the rulers of the great states was practically non-existent. For centuries the kings of Zhou were no more than symbolic figures who maintained the calendar and performed periodic ritual sacrifices, upon which the relationship of Heaven, Earth, and Man stood.^[7]

In 403 BC, the court of King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized the viscounts (zi 子) of Zhao, Wei and Han as marquises (hou 侯) after they conquered Jin,^[8] which Marquess Wen of Wei, the leader of the Wei family, with the help of the Three Qins, accomplished by besieging the Qi territory (located in modern-day Pingyuan County, Shandong.) Marquess Wen of Wei would also lead the Three Jins against the Chu state in response to their routine occupations. In 400 BC, Chu would be defeated.^[9]

In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state.^[10]

In 364 BC, the ruler of Qin, Duke Xian would be rewarded by the Zhou for protecting their interests.^[4]

Duke Kang of Qi died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future King Wei, from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards the end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power.^[11]

The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. Sima Qian writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had a calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign.^[12]

King Hui of Wei (370–319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make the boundaries of the three states more rational.

In 364 BC, Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to Daliang to be out of the reach of Qin.

In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, Handan, was under siege. The state of Qi intervened. The famous Qi strategist, Sun Bin the great-great-great-grandson of Sun Tzu, the author of the Art of War, proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the Battle of Guiling. The battle is remembered in the second of the Thirty-Six Stratagems, "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point.

Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher Mencius at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of the book which bears Meng Zi's name.

The title of king (wang, 王) was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states held the title of duke (gong, 公) or marquess (hou, 侯). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were called kings since King Wu of Chu started using the title c. 703 BC.

In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as kings: King Wei of Qi and King Hui of Wei, in effect declaring their independence from the Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike those in the Spring and Autumn period, the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms.

During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of Duke Xiao, when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC.

Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met government policies. As manpower was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Shang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals.

Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished primogeniture and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of nobles on the administration.

The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC the king conferred the title of Count ( Bó 伯) on Duke Xiao. As was customary, a conference was hosted which the feudal lords attended, and during which the Son of Heaven bestowed the title.^[11]

After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin took land from Wèi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin conquered Shu and Ba in Sichuan to the southwest. Development of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's wealth and power.

In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the Battle of Guiling met again (Sun Bin and Tian Ji versus Pang Juan), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them at the Battle of Maling. After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before King Xuan of Qi, pledging their loyalty.^[13]

In the following year Qin attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China.

Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with King Hui of Wei meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After Hui's death, his successor King Xiang also established a good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both promising to recognize the other as "king".^[12]

Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) named the famous reformer Wu Qi as his chancellor.

Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered Yue to its east on the Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu then proceeded to conquer Yue.

King Xian of Zhou had attempted to use what little royal prerogative he had left by appointing the dukes Xian (384–362 BC), Xiao (361–338 BC) and Hui (338–311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory making Qin the chief ally of the court.^[14]

However, in 325 BC, the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou dynasty.^[14] King Hui of Qin was guided by his prime minister Zhang Yi, a prominent representative of the School of Diplomacy.^[15]

He was followed in 323 BC by King Xuanhui of Han and King Yi of Yan, as well as King Cuo of the minor state Zhongshan.^[11] In 318 BC even the ruler of Song, a relatively minor state, declared himself king. Uniquely, while King Wuling of Zhao had joined the other kings in declaring himself king, he retracted this order in 318 BC, after Zhao suffered a great defeat at the hands of Qin.

King Kao of Zhou had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later, this cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "dukes of East Zhou".^[14]

Upon the ascension of King Nan in 314, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside in what became known as West Zhou.^[14]

Towards the end of the Warring States period, the state of Qin became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called hezong (合縱) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called lianheng (連橫), in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy.

There were some initial successes in hezong, though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as Su Qin, who advocated vertical alliances, and Zhang Yi, who advocated horizontal alliances, were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the School of Diplomacy, whose Chinese name (縱橫家 'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas.

Beginning in 334 BC the diplomat Su Qin spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which was not successful.^[11]

King Hui of Qin died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch, King Wu, reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before a son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as King Zhao, who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years.

After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised the newly crowned King Min have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers.^[16]

King Min of Qi came to be highly influenced by Lord Mengchang, a grandson of the former King Wei of Qi. Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of Wei and Han. In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by a succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min.^[12] This horizontal or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the State of Zhao.

Around 299 BC, the ruler of Zhao became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king".

In 298 BC, Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the Yellow River below Shanxi to the Hangu Pass. After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China.

In 294, Lord Mengchang was implicated in a coup d'état and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the state of Song whilst the Qin General Bai Qi pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the Battle of Yique.

In 288, King Zhao of Qin and King Min of Qi took the title di (帝 'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore a covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao.

In 287 BC the strategist Su Dai, younger brother of Su Qin^[16] and possibly an agent of Yan, persuaded King Min that the Zhao war would only benefit Qin. King Min agreed and formed a 'vertical' alliance with the other states against Qin. Qin backed off, abandoned the presumptuous title of "Di", and restored territory to Wei and Zhao. In 286 Qi annexed the state of Song.

In 285 BC, the success of Qi had frightened the other states. Under the leadership of Lord Mengchang, who was exiled in Wei, Qin, Zhao, Wei and Yan formed an alliance. Yan had normally been a relatively weak ally of Qi and Qi feared little from this quarter. Yan's onslaught under general Yue Yi came as a devastating surprise. Simultaneously, the other allies attacked from the west. Chu declared itself an ally of Qi but contented itself with annexing some territory to its north. Qi's armies were destroyed while the territory of Qi was reduced to the two cities of Ju and Jimo. King Min himself was later captured and executed by his own followers.

King Min was succeeded by King Xiang in 283 BC. His general Tian Dan was eventually able to restore much of Qi's territory, but it never regained the influence it had under King Min.

In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi attacked from Qin's new territory in Sichuan to the west of Chu. The capital of Ying was captured and Chu's western lands on the Han River were lost. The effect was to shift Chu significantly to the east.

After Chu was defeated in 278, the remaining great powers were Qin in the west and Zhao in the north-center. There was little room for diplomatic maneuver and matters were decided by wars. Zhao had been much strengthened by King Wuling of Zhao (325–299). In 307 he enlarged his cavalry by copying the northern nomads. In 306 he took more land in the northern Shanxi plateau. In 305 he defeated the north-eastern border state of Zhongshan. In 304 he pushed far to the north-west and occupied the east–west section of the Yellow River in the north of the Ordos Loop. King Huiwen of Zhao (298–266) chose able servants and expanded against the weakened Qi and Wei. In 296 his general Lian Po defeated two Qin armies.

In 269 BC Fan Sui became chief advisor to Qin. He advocated authoritarian reforms, irrevocable expansion and an alliance with distant states to attack nearby states (the twenty-third of the Thirty-Six Stratagems). His maxim "attack not only the territory, but also the people" enunciated a policy of mass slaughter that became increasingly frequent.

In 265 King Zhaoxiang of Qin made the first move by attacking the weak state of Han which held the Yellow River gateway into Qin. He moved north-east across Wei territory to cut off the Han exclave of Shangdang north of Luoyang and south of Zhao. The Han king agreed to surrender Shangdang, but the local governor refused and presented it to King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Zhao sent out Lian Po who based his armies at Changping and Qin sent out general Wang He. Lian Po was too wise to risk a decisive battle with the Qin army and remained inside his fortifications. Qin could not break through and the armies were locked in stalemate for three years. The Zhao king decided that Lian Po was not aggressive enough and sent out Zhao Kuo who promised a decisive battle. At the same time Qin secretly replaced Wang He with the notoriously violent Bai Qi. When Zhao Kuo left his fortifications, Bai Qi used a Cannae maneuver, falling back in the center and surrounding the Zhao army from the sides. After being surrounded for 46 days, the starving Zhao troops surrendered in September 260 BC. It is said that Bai Qi had all the prisoners killed and that Zhao lost 400,000 men.

Qin was too exhausted to follow up its victory. Some time later it sent an army to besiege the Zhao capital but the army was destroyed when it was attacked from the rear. Zhao survived, but there was no longer a state that could resist Qin on its own. The other states could have survived if they remained united against Qin, but they did not.

In 257 BC, Qin army failed to besiege Handan and was defeated by the allied force of Zhao, Wei and Chu during the Battle of Handan.

The forces of King Zhao of Qin defeated King Nan of Zhou and conquered West Zhou in 256 BC, claiming the Nine Cauldrons and thereby symbolically becoming The Son of Heaven.

King Zhao's exceptionally long reign ended in 251 BC. His son King Xiaowen, already an old man, died just three days after his coronation and was succeeded by his son King Zhuangxiang of Qin. The new Qin king proceeded to conquer East Zhou, seven years after the fall of West Zhou. Thus the 800-year Zhou dynasty, nominally China's longest-ruling regime, finally came to an end.^[14]

Sima Qian contradicts himself regarding the ultimate fate of the East Zhou court. Chapter 4 (The Annals of Zhou) concludes with the sentence "thus the sacrifices of Zhou ended", but in the following chapter 5 (The Annals of Qin) we learn that "Qin did not prohibit their sacrifices; the Lord of Zhou was allotted a patch of land in Yangren where he could continue his ancestral sacrifices".

King Zhuangxiang of Qin ruled for only three years. He was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at his coronation.^[18] As an adult, Zheng became a brilliant commander who, in the span of just ten years, as seen below, unified China. Though not mentioned here, Qin would later, in the 4th century, subjugate almost all western territories (modern day Gansu province and the greater Lanzhou area.)^[19]

In 230 BC, Qin ordered Neishi Teng to conquer Han. The general Meng Ao would capture thirteen cities,^[20] with the final nail in the coffin being the establishment of a prefecture in Yinchuan.^[21]

In 230 BC, Qin saw an opportunity to conquer Zhao as they were experiencing a drought. Qin sent three generals. Wang Jian started in Shangdang Commandery, moved through the Taihang Mountains to attack Jingxing (modern-day Jingxing County). Yang Duanhe, laid siege to Handan, and Li Xin attacked and took control of Taiyuan and the Yunzhong Commandery. Zhao general Li Mu and Sima Shang fought fiercely against Qin, hindering their progress. In response, Qin sent an operative to bribe Guo Kai, King Youmiao's "principal favorite" minister. Guo Kai presumably took the bribe and accused the two generals of siding with Qin. They were replaced with Zhao Cong and Ju Xin. Li Mu, however, refused to transfer authority because he thought the two generals were not skilled enough to fight Qin. This aroused suspicion, so King Youmiao secretly sent men to kill Li Mu. Qin would then conquer Zhao three months later in 228 BC, killing Zhao Cong and capturing King Youmiao alive, and then establish the prefecture of Handan, which had control over all other nearby areas.^[22]

The armies of Qin then assembled on the Ji River banks and prepared an invasion of Yan. The prince of Yan, Crown Prince Dan knew he could not defeat Qin, so he sought Jing Ke, an assassin, for help in kidnapping the Qin king, Qin Shi Huang, and persuade him to retreat his armies. Jing Ke agreed and attempted to kidnap him, but failed and died. Qin Shi Huang was furious at Crown Prince Dan and sent even more soldiers against Yan. Led by Wang Jian and Xin Sheng (辛勝), Qin successfully defeated the enemy forces. Later, in 226 BC, both generals conquered the Yan capital, Jicheng, forcing the Yan king, Xi of Yan, to flee to Liaoning, who was able to survive by giving Crown Prince Dan's severed head.^[23]

In 225 BC, Wang Ben, (Wang Jian's son) was sent to conquer Wei. They would flood the Daliang Mountains, forcing Jia of Wei to surrender. Meng Ao would attack Zhang Yi and Guiguzi. A few years later both generals would be captured.^[24] Meng Ao would go on to capture twenty cities including Changping and Yongqiu (now modern-day Qi County, Kaifeng.)^[25]

In 225 BC, Qin prepared to invade Chu. After receiving 400,000 soldiers, one-half led by Meng Wu towards modern-day Pingyu County and another half led by Li Xin, towards modern-day Shenqiu County. The Qin forces took both cities and met in Chengdu to begin another conquest. However, a revolution and hostage situation in modern-day Jiangling County forced Li Xin to quell the rebellion, leading to heavy causalities for Li Xin's army.^[26]

In 222 BC, Wang Jian was recalled to lead a second military invasion with 600,000 men against the rebels in Chu state. High in morale after their victory in the previous year, the Chu forces were content to sit back and defend against what they expected to be a siege of Chu. However, Wang Jian decided to weaken Chu's resolve and tricked the Chu army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, the Chu defenders decided to disband due to apparent lack of action from the Qin. Wang Jian invaded at that point, with full force, and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully conquered with the destruction of Shouchun and the death of its last leader, Lord Changping, in 223 BC. At their peak, the combined armies of Chu and Qin are estimated to have ranged from hundreds of thousands to a million soldiers, more than those involved in the campaign of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years earlier.^[27]

In the rule of the Qin state, the union was based solely on military power. The feudal holdings were abolished, and noble families were forced to live in the capital city Xianyang, in order to be supervised. A national road (as well as greater use of canals) allowed for faster and easier deployment and supply of the army. The peasants were given a wider range of land rights, although they were subject to taxation, creating a large amount of revenue to the state.^[28]

Qi Prime Minister Hou Sheng was bribed to influence King Jian of Qi to have a pacifist view towards Qin, so when the Qin attacked other states, the king send no aid. Wang Ben was easily able to conquer Qi due to its lack of military strength, and divided Qi into 2 prefectures. After successfully unifying all of China, Qin Shi Huang would claim the title of emperor, marking the end of the Warring States period, in 221 BC.^[29]

The Warring States period required solutions to issues relating to politics and war. During this time, there existed hundreds of scholarly individuals who would wander from state to state, eager to peddle ideas to rulers "anxious over the perilous condition of their countries and the weakness of their armies." These rulers would compete these scholars for advice over how to manage their armies, which would shock kings, dukes, and others. This, however, was a dangerous profession; if the advice given worked, they would be rewarded with high positions, but if the advice given, they would be tortured to death via being sawed in half, minced, or torn apart by chariots. Rewards were offered to devote men to giving their talent towards government, diplomacy, and military affairs.^[30][a] These wanderers were not bound by patriotism or loyalty. In fact, they would often served two princes and would be, "playing off the policy of the one against the other."^[31]

The chariot was a major factor in Chinese warfare^[19]. Near the beginning of the Warring States period there is a shift from chariots to massed infantry, with new weapons such as swords and crossbows. This change was associated with the fall of chivalry. It would also lead to a massive increase in the scale of warfare. Battles would last months or even years.^[4]

When the Zhou overthrew the Shang at the Battle of Muye they used 45,000 troops and 300 chariots. For the Warring States period the following figures for the military strengths of various states are reported:

• Qin
  1,000,000 infantry, 1,000 chariots, 10,000 horses;
• Chu
  same numbers;
• Wei
  200–360,000 infantry, 200,000 spearmen, 100,000 servants, 600 chariots, 5,000 cavalry;
• Han
  300,000 total;
• Qi
  several hundred thousand;

For major battles, the following figures are reported:

• Battle of Maling
  100,000 killed;
• Battle of Yique
  240,000 killed;
• General Bai Qi is said to have been responsible for 890,000 enemy deaths over his career.

Scholars such as Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy think these numbers are exaggerated (records are inadequate, they are much larger than those from similar societies, soldiers were paid by the number of enemies they killed and the Han dynasty had an interest in exaggerating the bloodiness of the age before China was unified). Regardless of exaggeration, it seems clear that warfare had become excessive during this period. The bloodshed and misery of the Warring States period goes a long way in explaining China's traditional and current preference for a united throne.^[32]

The Warring States period saw the introduction of many innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the use of iron and of cavalry.

Warfare in the Warring States period evolved considerably from the Spring and Autumn period, as most armies made use of infantry and cavalry in battles, and the use of chariots became less widespread. The use of massed infantry made warfare bloodier and reduced the importance of the aristocracy, which in turn made the kings more despotic. From this period onward, as the various states competed with each other by mobilizing their armies to war, nobles in China belonged to the literate class, rather than to the warrior class as had previously been the case.

The various states fielded massive armies of infantry, cavalry, and chariots. Complex logistical systems maintained by efficient government bureaucracies were needed to supply, train, and control such large forces. The size of the armies ranged from tens of thousands to several hundred thousand men.^[33] Iron weapons became more widespread and began to replace bronze. Most armour and weapons of this period were made from iron.

The first official native Chinese cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC during the military reforms of King Wuling of Zhao, who advocated 'nomadic dress and horse archery'.^[37] But the war chariot still retained its prestige and importance, despite the tactical superiority of cavalry.

The crossbow was the preferred long-range weapon of this period, due to several reasons. The crossbow could be mass-produced easily, and mass training of crossbowmen was possible. These qualities made it a powerful weapon against the enemy.

Infantrymen deployed a variety of weapons, but the most popular was the dagger-axe. The dagger-axe came in various lengths, from 9 to 18 feet; the weapon consisted of a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to it. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin, who produced 18-foot-long pike-like weapons.

The Qiang battle spear was named as the king 'wang' of all ancient weapons. It had the biggest impact on the battlefield and was quite difficult to master. The second important weapon of that era was the double-edged battle sword Jian. The fighting methods of using the Qiang spear and Jian sword were very different from what we see in movies or re-enactment shows today. Professional warriors of that era used the military concepts of "Master" Sun Tzu and created several successful "Ge Dou" martial schools.

The Warring States was a great period for military strategy; of the Seven Military Classics of China, four were written during this period:

• The Art of War
  It is attributed to Sun Tzu, a highly influential study of strategy and tactics.^[38]
• Wuzi
  It is attributed to Wu Qi, a statesman and commander who served the states of Wei and then Chu.
• Wei Liaozi
  of uncertain authorship.
• The Methods of the Sima
  It is attributed to Sima Rangju, a commander serving the state of Qi.

The Warring States period was an era of warfare in ancient China, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation; the major states, ruling over large territories, quickly sought to consolidate their powers, leading to the final erosion of the Zhou court's prestige. As a sign of this shift, the rulers of all the major states (except for Chu, which had claimed kingly title much earlier) abandoned their former feudal titles for the title of 王, or King, claiming equality with the rulers of the Zhou.

At the same time, the constant conflict and need for innovative social and political models led to the development of many philosophical doctrines, later known as the Hundred Schools of Thought. The most notable schools of thought include Mohism (expounded by Mozi), Confucianism (represented by Mencius and Xunzi), Legalism (represented by Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei) and Taoism (represented by Zhuangzi and Lao Tzu).

Mohism was developed by Mozi (468–376 BC) and it provided a unified moral and political philosophy based on impartiality and benevolence.^[39] Mohists had the belief that people change depending on environments around. The same was applied to rulers, which is why one must be cautious of foreign influences. Mozi was very much against warfare, although he was a great tactician in defense. He defended the small state of Song from many attempts of the Chu state.^[40] He once said:

If it [war] is in winter it will be too cold, and if in summer it will be too hot. So it should be done neither in winter nor in summer. But if iti is in spring it will take people away from sowing and planting, and if in fall it will take them away from reaping and harvesting. Should they be taken away in any of these seasons, innumerable people would die of hunger and cold. And, when the army sets out, the bamboo, arrows, plumed standards, house tents, armor, shields, and sword hilts will break and rot in innumerable quantities and never come back. Again with the spears, lances, swords, poniards, chariots and carts: these will break and rot in innumerable quantities and never come back. Innumerable horses and oxen will start out fat and come back lean, or will die and never come back at all. An innumerable people will die because their food will be cut off and cannot be supplied on account of the great distance of the roads, while other innumerable people will get sick and died from the constant danger, the irregularities of eating and drinking, and the extremes of hunger and over-eating. Then the army will be lost in large numbers or in its entirety; in either case the number will be innumerable.^[41]

Mencius attempted to instate Confucianism as a state philosophy, proposing that through the governing of moral principles like benevolence and righteousness, the state would win popular support from one state and those neighboring, eliminating the need of a war altogether. Mencius had attempted to convince King Hui of Liang, although was unsuccessful since the king saw no advantage in the period of wars.^[42]

Taoism was advocated by Laozi, and believed that human nature was good and can achieve perfection by returning to its original state. It believed that like a baby, humans are simple and innocent although with development of civilizations it lost its innocence only to be replaced by fraud and greed. Contrarily to other schools, it did not want to gain influence in the offices of states and Laozi even refused to be the minister of the state of Chu.^[40]

Legalism created by Shang Yang in 338 BC, rejected all notions of religion and practices, and believed a nation should be governed by strict law. Not only were severe punishments applied, but they would be grouped with the families and made mutually responsible for criminal act. It proposed radical reforms, and established a society based on solid ranks. Peasants were encouraged to practice agriculture as occupation, and military performance was rewarded. Laws were also applied to all ranks with no exception; even the king was not above punishment. The philosophy was adapted by the Qin state and it created it into an organized, centralized state with a bureaucracy chosen on the basis of merit.^[42] This period is most famous for the establishment of complex bureaucracies and centralized governments, as well as a clear legal system. The developments in political and military organization were the basis of the power of the Qin state, which conquered the other states and unified them under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC.

The phenomenon of intensive warfare, based on mass formations of infantry rather than the traditional chariots, was one major trend which led to the creation of strong central bureaucracies in each of the major states. At the same time, the process of secondary feudalism which permeated the Spring and Autumn period, and led to such events as the partition of Jin and the usurpation of Qi by the Tian clan, was eventually reversed by the same process of bureaucratisation.

Under the demands of warfare, the states adopted bureaucratic reforms in the Warring States period. Wei adopted these in 445 BC, Zhao in 403 BC, Chu in 390 BC, Han in 355 BC, Qi in 357 BC and Qin in 350 BC. Power was centralised by curbing the landed aristocrats and sinecures and creating a new hierarchy based on meritorious service to the state, which were drawn from the lower rungs of society. Systematic auditing and reporting systems, and fixed salaries for officials were created.^[43]

The reforms of Shang Yang in Qin, and of Wu Qi in Chu, both centred on increased centralisation, the suppression of the nobility, and a vastly increased scope of government based on Legalist ideals, which were necessary to mobilise the large armies of the period.

The rulers of the Warring States were not particularly interested with this kind of pacifistic philosophy, who behaved the way they did because of urgent matters rather than the works of philosophy, but this is not to say that they were uncivilized; in fact, most of these rulers were wealthy, educated men who lived in luxurious courts.^[44]

A bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection dated to 305 BC are the world's earliest example of a two digit decimal multiplication table, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.^[45]

Rod numerals were used to represent both negative and positive integers, and rational numbers, a true positional number system, with a blank for zero dating back to the Warring States period.

The nine linked-rings puzzle, an advanced puzzle device which requires mathematical analysis to solve, was invented during the period.^[46]

An important literary achievement of the Warring States period is the Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, which summarizes the preceding Spring and Autumn period. The less famous work Guoyu is thought to be by the same author.^[47]

Many sayings of Spring and Autumn philosophers, which had previously been circulated orally, were put into writing during the time of the Warring States, such as the Analects.^[48] The Art of War was written during this time.^[49]

The Warring States period saw a large demand for weapons, and as a result, led to the advancement of metalworking and the usage of iron. Artists were able to produce more profound artwork, mastering the use of jade and lacquer. Improvements in agriculture, tools, and irrigation gave the army their needed supplies and increased productivity amongst the populace.^[4] Ironmasters would often employ hundreds in some states, and it soon became a monopoly of the government.^[50]

Markets heavily prospered, alongside interstate commerce. In the capital of Qi, Linzi, the populated estimated to be 750,000, continued to be a hotspot for those who came to purchase salt, silk, iron and dried fish. It was also a hub for entertainment in music halls, brothels, and gamblers betting on dog races, cock fights, and football games.^[44]

The Guanzi is considered one of the most foundational texts of the developing political economy in the Warring States period.^[51] It addresses principles of price regulation in the context of effectively dealing with commodities that are "light" (connoting a commodity which is unimportant, non-essential, or inexpensive) or "heavy" (a commodity which is important, essential, or expensive) and how whether a commodity is "light" or "heavy" is understood in relation to other commodities.^[52]

• Feudalism
• Sengoku period – A period in Japanese history named after this period
• Three Kingdoms
• Warlord Era

• Li Xueqin (1985). Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations. Translated by Chang, K.C. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03286-2.
• Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars with the Xiongnu: A Translation from Zizhi Tongjian. Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4490-0604-4.
• Sima Guang (2016). Zizhi Tongjian: Warring States and Qin. Vol. 1 to 8 - 403-207 BCE. Translated by Yap, Joseph P. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1533086938. LCCN 2016908788.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to 戰國時代.

• Warring States period - World History Encyclopedia
• Warring States Project, University of Massachusetts Amherst
• Rulers of the warring states – Chinese Text Project
• China's Warring States period, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Chris Cullen, Vivienne Lo & Carol Michaelson (In Our Time, Apr. 1, 2004)
• Warring States wine made more than 2,300 years ago, as deep as the sea